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COVID-19 has a wide spectrum of clinical severity and there is evidence that SARS-Cov2 affects several organs and systems. Among the organs affected since the beginning of the pandemic, the relationship between SARS-CoV-2 infection and thyroid involvement has been demonstrated. Novel and highly effective mRNA and DNA-based vaccines have been rapidly developed to decrease SARS-CoV-2 morbidity and mortality. Early after mass vaccinations, cases of thyroid dysfunction mainly including episodes of subacute thyroiditis, began to be reported like adverse effects. The objective of this study is to determine the impact of the pandemic, both due to SARS-CoV2 infections and vaccinations, on the incidence of Graves´ disease.Cross-sectional, observational study comparing incidence of Graves´ disease in adult population (over 18 years) before (2017-2019) and after (2020-2021) Covid-19 pandemic. Only patients with new cases of Graves' disease, no relapsed diseases, were included. SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis was based on nucleic acid amplification tests on nasopharyngeal swabs or measurement of class M and class G antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 by highly specific assays. Data on incidence and vaccination related to SARS-CoV-2 infection were obtained from the public records from Castilla y León autonomous regional government.180 subjects were diagnosed and treated for Graves' disease (GD) during the study period. We observed a notable increase in expected GD cases in 2021 compared to 2017-19. The number of GD cases was higher in the second (Q2) quarter. Among 2021 GD cases, 42/66 patients (63.6%) had been vaccinated in the 90 days prior to symptom onset, but none of them in the first quarter of the year. 97.7% were women with a mean age of 48.9 (SD 15.6) years. On average they were diagnosed 19.9 (SD 17.6) days after receiving the vaccine.7/42 (16.67%) had another previously diagnosed autoimmune disease and 11/42 (26.19%) were smokers.Our results show a notable increase in the incidence of GD during the year 2021, specially in women with a history of smoking. Hyper activation of the immune system induced by SARS-Cov2 and by the recently released SARS-COV-2 vaccines has been highlighted in recent months. To assess whether this observed increase in the incidence of GD is sustained in the coming years or has simply been a precipitous trigger for individuals who were already predisposed to develop the disease, future studies will be needed. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Following the Holocene Thermal Maximum, dated between 11 and 6 ka, the Neoglacial period was one of the progressive, fluctuating cooling that peaked during the Little Ice Age (LIA). The almost total absence of glacial tills prior to the LIA in the Pyrenees forces recourse to a high variety of proxies, including lacustrine sediments, palynological records, dendroclimatology, ice cores from glaciers and caves, speleothems, historical documentation and glacial records. This has enabled us to identify several colder periods during the mid- and late-Holocene: (i) the first phase of the Neoglacial period occurred at some time around 6 ka; (ii) a glacial pulse immediately before 3.4 ka; (iii) a glacial re-advance during the Dark Ages, i.e., immediately before the Medieval Climate Anomaly, between the fourth and ninth centuries; and (iv) the Little Ice Age, which started at the beginning of the fourteenth century and finished in the mid-nineteenth century. During the LIA, there was remarkable climate variability, with two, and probably three, glacial pulses, mainly between 1620 and 1715 and in the first half of the nineteenth century. Of all of the Holocene cold periods, most of the European paleoclimatic records coincide on the occurrence of the LIA. For the remaining Holocene cold periods, European records show high variability and uncertainty, particularly for the onset of the Neoglacial, although the phases of glacial pulses in the Pyrenees broadly coincide with those identified in the Alps and northern Europe.

The action of the Quaternary glaciers in the Central-Western Pyrenees is responsible for the various kinds of the relief features found there, including the well-configured cirques, large U-shaped valleys, overexcavation basins, detailed shapes, and moraine accumulations of very different ages. With almost continuous divides exceeding 2500 m and very complex basins that integrate numerous tributary valleys, the main Pyrenean glaciers reached over 30 km in length and 400 m in thickness, descending to altitudes of c. 800 m. The largest glaciers were those in the Gallego and Esera valleys. Their size is attributed to the large extents of their headwaters and the altitudes of their highest peaks. The long tradition of studies on Pyrenean glacial processes allows us to trace a fairly complete sequence of events, especially during the Last Glacial Cycle. Thus, a considerable amount of data confirm that the maximum ice extent did not occur during the global Last Glacial Maximum (20 ka or MIS-2) but at 60 ka, that is, during MIS-4. There is indirect evidence of a glacial advance between 22 and 19 ka as well as successive advances and retreats in the Oldest Dryas and Younger Dryas during deglaciation. Moreover, small reactivations likely took place during the Holocene from 6 ka, especially during the Little Ice Age. It is also interesting to note that scattered moraine remains, erratic blocks, and fluvioglacial terraces corresponding to previous glacial cycles have been found in some valleys.

The European Mediterranean highlands have undergone a sharp economic decline from the mid-20th century, causing heavy environmental impacts and loss of ecosystem services. These mountain areas have limited opportunities to integrate into in the current financial system, which demands high productivity from workers and a very competitive product. Extensive livestock farming is one of the few activities able to survive in this context, as it needs little labour and can make use of poor grazing resources. In the north-west Iberian Range, northern Spain, the Leza valley (La Rioja) is showing a growing interest in developing extensive livestock farming. To this end, the regional Government is implementing a pasture regeneration plan for clearing shrubland. Since 1986, almost 30% of the shrubs have been cleared, mainly abandoned fields recolonized by Genista scorpius on lime substrate, and Cistus laurifolius on siliceous substrate. This has increased the available pasture, as the average production in G. scorpius areas has risen from 4566 Mj ha -1 yr -1 (δ ± 1271) to 10,167.3 Mj ha -1 yr -1 (δ ± 2850.3), and on C. laurifolius areas from 2435 Mj ha -1 yr -1 (δ ± 492) to 7628.6 Mj ha -1 yr -1 (δ ± 1428.2). The livestock numbers show an upward trend, going from 1833.9 LU in 1972 to 7207.8 LU in 2017, with a simultaneous increase in the size of farms (27.6 LU in 1972 and 115.2 LU in 2017). In addition, new livestock farms established by people from outside the study area (41.7% in 2017). Finally, there is a discussion on the environmental benefits provided by extensive livestock farming.

espanolEl Antropoceno puede considerarse como el origen de la configuracion paisajistica actual, y en relacion a la vegetacion, como el periodo en el que la intervencion humana es el agente principal de los cambios que se producen de forma clara, intensa y permanente en el tiempo. En este trabajo se recopilan y comparan datos de secuencias palinologicas y de microcarbones, ocupaciones de yacimientos arqueologicos y dataciones de paleoincendios localizados en el Pirineo Central, ademas de informacion documental, exponiendo una reflexion sobre las supuestas evidencias que promulgan una deforestacion temprana y el uso del fuego de origen antropico como senal inequivoca de intervencion humana y surgimiento de los paisajes culturales desde hace milenios. En realidad, lo que se constata es una alta diversidad temporal y espacial entre todos los indicios, y solo a partir de la Baja Edad Media (ultimos 700 anos, 1300 AD), los indicadores y valores de los mismos ofrecen autentico consenso sobre el inicio de cambios consistentes y duraderos que marcarian el inicio del Antropoceno. EnglishThe Anthropocene is related to the origin of current landscape configuration, and in terms of vegetation, with the consideration of human action as main forcing of clear, intense and permanent changes through time. In this paper we compile and compare data from palynological sequences, microcharcoal records, archaeological sites and radiocarbon dates from palaeofires located in the Central Pyrenees besides historical documents, and we argue that some evidences related to early deforestation processes and use of human fire are not so clear than some authors point. Conversely, indicators of unequivocal human use and the origin of cultural landscapes are located only a few centuries and not a few millennia ago. In fact, high temporal and spatial variability is recorded until the Middle Ages (last 700 years, 1300 AD), when a series of consistent and permanent changes suggest the onset of the Anthropocene.

Many studies are concentrated on provisioning certain levels of Quality of Service (QoS) employing different approaches related to different areas (control congestion algorithms, transport protocols, etc). This paper is focused on the improvement of the QoS of peer-to-peer TV (P2P-TV), and in particular, it proposes a methodology to minimise the impact of bursty traffic in the buffer of access devices using a traffic shaping technique. This paper shows how QoS can be improved by means of traffic shaping, specifically by using smoothing techniques. Some parameters such as packet loss, delay and throughput of a popular P2PTV application are analysed. The competition for the available bandwidth between the P2P-TV and some Transport Control Protocol (TCP) traffic flows is also studied. The results show a reduction in terms of loss percentage when the traffic of the P2P-TV application is smoothed, introducing small delays as a counterpart.

1 Pág. The original version is available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/0169555X, Regarding the contents of the Supplementary material 2, which contained the erosion rates database used in the article, we regret that the plain text file was corrupted and some of the erosion rates are wrongly formatted. We would like to apologise for any inconvenience caused. We provide the complete database in Microsoft Excel format. This file should be used instead of the original one.

From the mid-twentieth century, Mediterranean mountains were affected by a rapid and generalized land abandonment process. This chapter (1) summarizes the impacts of land abandonment on the hydrological dynamics in Mediterranean mountain areas; (2) evaluates post-land abandonment management practices (LMPs) for flood mitigation based on nature-based solutions (NBS); and (3) briefly discusses some examples in the Central Pyrenees. In general, land abandonment resulted in a natural colonization by shrubs and forests, which, in turn, led to a decrease in river discharges and sediment yields. NBS, as mitigation measures to control flood occurrence, have been carried out including afforestation, shrub clearing, landscape changes, and recovery of terraces and stonewalls. In addition, in the most hydrogeomorphologically active areas, a combination of NBS and grey infrastructures was used to control floods. Grey infrastructures produce immediate effects but they are short-lived and expensive solutions. LMPs based on NBS present advantages and disadvantages: (1) afforestation was the most common practice, reducing floods, hydrological connectivity, peak flows, and sediment yields, in spite of their lower impact in extreme events; (2) shrub clearing decreases the number of forest fires and maintains the occurrence of the most frequent floods; (3) the recovery of mosaic landscapes produces environmental consequences, being important sources of ecosystem services, such as the regulation of floods; and (4) the recovery of agricultural terraces and stonewalls is highly expensive, but presents social and cultural benefits, reducing hydrological connectivity, peak flows, and runoff. In the near future, NBS in abandoned lands should be based on cost-effective and long-term strategies to mitigate flood risk. NBS should be cost-effective, ensure longer lifetime than grey infrastructures, and be adapted to different local objectives and global scenarios.

Mountain glaciers have generally experienced an accelerated retreat over the last three decades as a rapid response to current global warming. However, the response to previous warm periods in the Holocene is not well-described for glaciers of the of southern Europe mountain ranges, such as the Pyrenees. The situation during the Medieval Climate Anomaly (900–1300 CE) is particularly relevant since it is not certain whether the glaciers just experienced significant ice loss or whether they actually disappeared. We present here the first chronological study of a glacier located in the Central Pyrenees (N Spain), the Monte Perdido Glacier (MPG), carried out by different radiochronological techniques and their comparison with geochemical proxies with neighboring paleoclimate records. The result of the chronological model proves that the glacier endured during the Roman Period and the Medieval Climate Anomaly. The lack of ice from last 600 years indicates that the ice formed during the Little Ice Age has melted away. The analyses of the content of several metals of anthropogenic origin, such as Zn, Se, Cd, Hg, Pb, appear in low amounts in MPG ice, which further supports our age model in which the record from the industrial period is lost. This study confirms the exceptional warming of the last decades in the context of last two millennia. We demonstrate that we are facing an unprecedented retreat of the Pyrenean glaciers which survival is compromised beyond a few decades.

3 Pags. The definitive version is available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03014797, The authors want to acknowledge funding by the projects Capitalización, observación, transferencia y apropiación de estrategias de adaptación al cambio climático en los Pirineos en un contexto de cooperación transfronteriza. ADAPYR: OPCC3 and EFA210/16-PIRAGUA, both co-founded by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the Interreg V Spain-France-Andorre Programme (POCTEFA 2014–2020) of the European Union; INNOMED, co-funded by the Agencia Estatal de Investigación of Spain in the framework of the ERA-NET WaterWorks2015 cofunded Call (project INNOMED); Cross-sectoral impact assessment of droughts in complex European basins-CROSSDRO funded by ERANET-AXIS Joint Call for Transnational Collaborative Research and “El papel de la nieve en la hidrología de la península ibérica y su respuesta a procesos de cambio global- CGL 2017-82216-R” funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy.

46 Pags.- 4 Figs. The definitive version is available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03418162, A key problem in explaining the mountain landscapes of the Mediterranean region is the relationship between the development of transhumance (seasonal movement of livestock over long distances) and deforestation of the subalpine and upper montane belts at 1350–2200 m above sea level (m a.s.l.). We examined this relationship in the Central Southern Pyrenees using information from multiple proxies—archaeology, pollen analysis, lacustrine sedimentation patterns, historical documents, and geomorphology. Although there is evidence of forest clearing since the Neolithic, and we can infer the presence of shepherds and livestock in mountain areas based on archaeological sites and pollen analysis in some lacustrine records, there is no strong evidence for transhumance between the Ebro Depression and the Pyrenees during the Prehistory. Instead, we found evidence of transterminance (seasonal movement of livestock over short distances) during this time. Growth of human populations and the establishment of large-scale markets favored longer livestock movements during the Roman period, although we only have indirect information on this for other areas of the Iberian Peninsula and the Mediterranean region. A few documents indicate the occurrence of transhumance during the Early Middle Ages, whereas all other proxies indicate a general expansion of livestock and transhumance during the 12th and 13th centuries. This coincides with the Christian conquest of the Central Ebro Depression by the Aragon Kingdom, the organization of large wool markets in Western Europe, and the exemptions conferred by the kings of Aragon to herders in the city of Saragossa. This led to rapid deforestation, in that forests were rapidly logged or burned to expand the summer grasslands. During this period, written documents indicate many conflicts between people in the villages and valleys for control of summer grasslands, pollen analyses show a rapid decline of arboreal pollen, and geomorphology studies indicate greatly increased sedimentation rates following deforestation, suggesting intense erosion. Transhumance has declined since the end of the 18th century, and particularly throughout the 20th century, and this has led to tree re-colonization of less accessible and marginal areas. The hydrological and geomorphological consequences of these recent events are important topics for future studies., This research was supported by the ESPAS Project (CGL2015-65569-R) and the Gaps and Sites Project (HAR2017-85023-P), both funded by the MINECO-FEDER, and by the Research Group from the Aragon Government (H14_17R). R. Domingo is a Ramón y Cajal Research Fellow (RyC2013-12613, MINECO). P. Diarte-Blasco is an Atracción de Talento-CAM Research Fellow (2018-T1/HUM-10636).

The production of a cartographic landslide inventory in the glaciated headwaters of the upper Gallego River, Axial Zone of the Spanish Pyrenees, revealed several paleolakes. These relict lake basins are related to the blockage of drainages by postglacial earthflows and slides, mainly developed on Paleozoic slates. The paleolakes are recorded either by non-dissected infilled basins or by hanging and incised lacustrine terraces that persisted for thousands of years. The development of lakes upstream of landslides, was favored, despite their erodibility, by high-displacement rates and the occurrence of paired landslides on both sides of the valley. Radiocarbon and single-grain optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) ages obtained on the lake sediments range between 41.5 ± 3.9 ka and 15.1 ± 0.3 ka. These chronologies indicate prolonged landslide activity long after the early deglaciation in the upper Gallego River Valley. The landslide-lake dating results support the interpretation that the regional maximum ice extent (MIE) in the Pyrenees occurred during the marine isotope stage 4 (MIS 4), long before the global Last Glacial Maximum (LGM).

Oliva, M. et. al., The Little Ice Age (LIA) is known as one of the coldest stages of the Holocene. Most records from the Northern Hemisphere show evidence of significantly colder conditions during the LIA, which in some cases had substantial socio-economic consequences. In this study we investigated the magnitude and timing of climate variability during the LIA in the mountains of the Iberian Peninsula, based on a wide range of natural records (including from glacial, periglacial, and lacustrine/peatland areas; fluvial/alluvial deposits; speleothems; and tree rings), historical documents, and early instrument data. The onset of the LIA commenced in approximately CE 1300, and cold conditions with alternating moisture regimes persisted until approximately CE 1850; the environmental responses ranged from rapid (e.g. tree rings) to delayed (e.g. glaciers). The colder climate of the LIA was accompanied by severe droughts, floods, and cold/heat waves that showed significant spatio-temporal variation across the Iberian mountains. Several phases within the LIA have been detected, including (a) 1300–1480: increasing cooling with moderate climate oscillations; (b) 1480–1570: relatively warmer conditions; (c) 1570–1620: gradual cooling; (d) 1620–1715: coldest climate period of the LIA, particularly during the Maunder Minimum, with temperatures approximately 2 °C below those at present; (e) 1715–1760: warmer temperatures and a low frequency of extreme events; (f) 1760–1800: climate deterioration and more climate extremes (i.e. cold and heat waves, floods and droughts); (g) 1800–1850: highly variable climate conditions alternating with stability (1800–1815), extreme events (1815–1835), and a slight trend of warming associated with intense hydrometeorological events (1835–1850); (h) since 1850: a gradual staggered increase in temperature of approximately 1 °C. Post-LIA warming has led to substantial changes in geo-ecological dynamics, mainly through shrinking of the spatial domain affected by cold climate processes. © 2017 Elsevier B.V., MO is supported by the Ramón y Cajal Program of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (RYC-2015-17597). OLC is funded by Plan Galego I2C mod. A and Juan de la Cierva Incorporación (IJCI-2015-26864). This study was supported by the research projects CRIOINDI (CGL2015-68144-R), ESPAS (CGL2015-65569-R), DESIRÈ (HAR2013-43701-P), (CGL2014-58127-C3-1-R) and CLIMED (CGL2015-69985R) of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO/FEDER) and IMDROFLOOD (PCIN-2015-220) financed by the Water Works 2014 co-funded call of the European Commission.

Geotourism is a useful way to educate societies in the field of geomorphology and related natural hazards. Geosites, including geomorphosites, represent the basis for the development of this type of tourism. This study describes 12 representative gully regions within nine European countries. The characteristics of 42 permanent gullies, gully systems, and badland landscapes are presented. Based on scientific values of the sites, educational lessons to be learned were identified that are mainly related to (i) gullies as a geological window, (ii) present-day geomorphological processes and (iii) stages of historical gully erosion reflecting past human¿environment interactions. To evaluate possible education activities, a geotouristic assessment of the studied gullies and badlands was made, based on scientific, educational, functional and touristic indicators. This assessment demonstrates a large difference between the selected gully and badland sites, particularly with regard to functional and tourist values. The geotouristic potential of gullies (badlands) is the highest in Italy and Spain and the lowest in Romania and Latvia. In some countries, permanent gullies are not regarded as geotouristic attractions at all,while in others, they constitute a significant element of their tourism development strategy. In our opinion, all activities must be part of a broader strategy for the development of geotourism in gully and badland regions, for example, gullies may be included as geosites within existing or planned geoparks., The research in Slovakia was supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency under the contract no. APVV0625-11. Estela Nadal-Romero was the recipient of a Ramón y Cajal postdoctoral contract (Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness). Geomorphic reclamation initiatives on gullies degraded by mining, in Central Spain, are supported by the Ecological Restoration Network 502 REMEDINAL-3 of the Madrid Community (S2013/MAE-2719).

Water availability and quality in Mediterranean environments are largely related to the spatial organisation of land uses in mountain areas, where most water resources are generated. However, there is scant data available on the potential effects of land use changes on surface water chemistry in the Mediterranean mountain region. In order to address this gap in the research, this study investigates the effects of various mountain Mediterranean land covers/land uses on runoff water yielded and water chemistry (solute concentrations and loads) using data from the A&iacute, sa Valley Experimental Station (Central Pyrenees) for a long-term period (1991&ndash, 2011). Nine land covers have been reproduced in closed plots, including dense shrub cover, grazing meadows, cereal, fallow land, abandoned field, shifting agriculture (active and abandoned) and 2 burned plots (one burned in 1991 and the second one burned twice in 1993 and 2001). Results show that all solute concentrations differed among land uses, with agricultural activity producing significantly higher solute loads and concentrations than the other types. Two groups have been identified: (i) the lowest solute concentrations and the smallest quantities of solute loads are recorded in the dense shrub cover, the plot burned once (at present well colonized with shrubs), meadows and abandoned field plots, (ii) the plot burned twice registered moderate values and the highest solute concentrations and loads are found in cereal, fallow land and shifting agriculture plots. Water chemistry is clearly dominated by Ca2+ and HCO3&minus, concentrations, whereas other solutes are exported in very low quantities due to the poor nutrient content of the soil. These results complete the information published previously on soil erosion under different land uses in this experimental station and help to explain the evolution of land cover as a consequence of shifting agriculture, cereal farming on steep slopes and the use of recurrent fires to favour seasonal grazing. They also suggest that promoting the development of grazing and cutting meadows is a good strategy to reduce not only soil erosion but also the loss of nutrients.

The only glaciers existing today in the Iberian Peninsula are small features located in the Pyrenees, though their number and extension has undergone significant changes over the Late Quaternary. The wide range of glacial landforms and deposits distributed across different Iberian ranges suggests the occurrence of several past periods with larger glacial systems. The objective of this research is to summarize the current knowledge on the spatial and temporal patterns of glacial activity in the Iberian mountains during the Late Quaternary. To this purpose, the chronological framework was divided in six periods: glaciations prior to the Last Glacial Cycle (Middle Pleistocene), Last Glacial Cycle (Late Pleistocene), Termination-1, Holocene, Little Ice Age (LIA) and present-day. The data were geographically divided considering the mountain systems where glacial evidence exists: Pyrenees, Cantabrian Range, NW ranges, Central Range, Iberian Range and Sierra Nevada. During Quaternary cold stages, ice accumulated in the head valleys of these mountain ranges and glaciers flowed down-valleys. In all cases, glaciers remained confined within the mountain systems and did not reach the surrounding lowlands. Depending on the combination of temperatures and moisture conditions, more or less ice was stored. In some ranges, there is evidence of Middle Pleistocene glaciations, one potentially correlating with marine isotope stage (MIS) 12 and another correlating with MIS 6 with glaciation dated to ca. 130-170 ka. However, most of the glacial records correspond to the Last Glacial Cycle and subsequent Termination. The maximum glacial expansion of this last Pleistocene glaciation stage occurred well before the global Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) between 30 and 60 ka in the Cantabrian Mountains and Pyrenees, at ca. 30 ka in Sierra Nevada and NW ranges, and (almost) synchronously to the LGM in the Central Range and Iberian Range. A massive glacial retreat occurred in all ranges at 19-20 ka, but the long-term deglaciation process was interrupted by cold intervals, such as the Oldest and Younger Dryas, which favoured glacial expansion in the highest mountains. Temperature increase recorded during the Holocene conditioned the melting of glaciers, which only reappeared in the highest massifs during the coldest periods, such as the LIA. However, post-LIA warming led to glacier disappearance in the Cantabrian Mountains, Sierra Nevada and most massifs of the Pyrenees, together with an accelerated shrinkage of the small glaciers still existing in this range at elevations near 3000 m.

11 Pags.- 8 Figs.- 9 Tabls., As with other mountain areas in Europe, the subalpine belt of the Central Spanish Pyrenees (approximately 1600–2200 m a.s.l.) has undergone constant deforestation since the Neolithic era and particularly during the Late Middle Ages, in favour of livestock management and grazing in summer. This furthered the rise of transhumance between the lowlands and the highlands. The abrupt change in land cover triggered a variety of geomorphic processes and landforms that partially contributed to land degradation and an increase in erosion and sediment yield: shallow landslides, solifluction lobes, soil creeping, terracettes, parallel deep incisions (henceforth: gullies) and stone-banked lobes. The main factors explaining the location of the various landforms are elevation, gradient, aspect, plant cover, soil characteristics, and the topographic index. The statistical analysis clearly separates two types of landforms: (i) shallow landslides, solifluction lobes, and areas of soil creeping, located at relatively low elevations, deep soils and fairly gentle gradients; and (ii) terracettes, gullies and stone-banked lobes, which are generally found at high elevations, on thin soils, north-facing slopes and steep gradients. The declining livestock pressure from the beginning of the 19th century, and particularly from the mid-20th century, explains the progressive re-colonization of the subalpine belt by forest and the reduction in shallow landslides over the last few decades. Most likely, this forest recovery will continue in the near future, with the hydrological, geomorphological and biogeographical consequences still being far from understood., This research was supported by the MANMOUNT (PID2019-105983RB-100) project, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and FEDER and by the Research Group from the Aragón Government E02_17E.

The Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta (12°N) hosts a unique glaciated environment (6.5 km2) only 40 km distant from the Caribbean Sea. However, the remoteness of the glaciers and restricted access to the region has so far prevented onsite field work research from being undertaken. We worked with several very high resolution airborne and satellite images to delimit the extension of the glaciers during the maximum extension of the Little Ice Age (ca. 1850), when glaciers covered 81.6 km2, and the ice cover in four subsequent phases (1954, 1995, 2010 and 2016). Polar plots and Random Forest models enabled characterization of the spatial distribution of ice cover in the region, and how the impact of topographic and geographical variables changed over time. Results show that elevation was the most important variable in explaining the existence of glaciers during the LIA. Since then, the ice cover has gradually been receding to areas shielded from solar radiation, even though the solar angle at this latitude is very high. Thus, results clearly confirm that topography is increasing its importance to explain the glacier distribution over the study area, and the particular characteristics of where each ice body is found will gain importance. Nonetheless, the probability of ice being present as predicted by Random Forests in 2017 suggests that most of the ice cover located outside the most elevated areas of the Sierra is very likely to disappear in coming years.

Farmland abandonment and the decline of livestock activity in the Mediterranean mountains have resulted in dramatic landscape changes, including the generalized expansion of shrublands and forests, and the homogenization of the old cultural landscapes. This process has a variety of consequences from ecological, geomorphological and hydrological points of view, as well as from the perspectives of land management and public awareness. An intense debate currently surrounds the discussion and evaluation of rewilding (the process of passively allowing woody encroachment, as well as the reintroduction of large mammals) as an opportunity for enhancing biodiversity and restoring original landscapes after centuries of human activity versus ecological restoration (activities leading to the recovery of degraded ecosystems, including clearing and light human activity). There is no clear consensus regarding the best way to improve the ecological relationships and functioning within an ecosystem. Biodiversity and sustainability can be seen under different levels of human pressure and landscape transformation; total farmland abandonment is not always the best alternative, particularly when local inhabitants aim to sustain themselves using local resources. Many geographers and ecologists consider that extensive stockbreeding in a partially open landscape is a rational way to (i) improve landscape organization, (ii) increase flows and turnover within the ecosystems, (iii) increase the diversity of plants and animals that benefit from a relatively light human presence, and (iv) reduce wildfire risk. However, it has proven challenging for land managers and stockbreeders to clear the best old abandoned fields and “construct” a sustainable, balanced landscape that combines forests, shrublands and open lands. Private landowner involvement and support from the general public is crucial for both funding and the long-term maintenance of benefits. The best old fields should be cleared in the context of high-resolution knowledge of the topography, grassland characteristics, grassland cycles and livestock management. Such efforts are likely to be an excellent opportunity to introduce compatibility between light human activity and increases in biodiversity and sustainability for many marginal mountains, where land abandonment and general forest/shrub recovery are the inevitable tendencies. This paper examines some of the contrasting positions of the scientific community regarding the rewilding or ecological restoration of mountain landscapes, and briefly highlights some experiences in which intentional clearing of old abandoned fields has benefited stockbreeding, biodiversity, runoff generation and wildfire risks. Notably, we describe a sub-Mediterranean valley of the Iberian Range, Northern Spain, as an example. In the long term, we find that the intentional clearing of the best old fields allows the slow organization of a final landscape that will be more useful for local inhabitants, thereby helping to reverse human depopulation in these regions., This research was supported by the ESPAS (CGL2015-66569) and MANMOUNT (PID2019-105983RB-100) projects, both funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and FEDER and by the Research Group from the Aragón Government E02_17E.

El Dryas Reciente (Younger Dryas) (GS-1, entre 12,9 y 11,7 ka BP) se caracterizó por un marcado descenso de la temperatura a escala global. La consecuencia fue un re avance de los glaciares que afectó también a las cordilleras más importantes de la Península Ibérica. Este trabajo revisa la información disponible sobre la localización, evolución y extensión de tales glaciares. La actividad geomorfológica durante el Dryas Reciente en la Península Ibérica se ha identificado mediante depósitos morrénicos, umbrales rocosos pulidos por el hielo, y glaciares rocosos, datados en la mayor parte de los casos mediante métodos cosmogénicos. Los mejores ejemplos de morrenas del Dryas Reciente se localizan en los Pirineos, donde se desarrollaron cortas lenguas glaciares de hasta 4 km de longitud en los macizos más elevados y numerosos glaciares de circo. También hay evidencias de pequeños glaciares de circo y glaciares rocosos en la Cordillera Cantábrica y en el Sistema Central (sierras de Gredos y Guadarrama), como indican umbrales rocosos y depósitos morrénicos en el frente de circos glaciares. En cambio, en Sierra Nevada, en el extremo meridional de la Península Ibérica, las únicas evidencias del Younger Dryas son glaciares rocosos que se desarrollaron durante el Dryas Antiguo y estuvieron funcionales durante todo el Dryas reciente

Large rainfed, dryland areas were transformed into irrigated land in northeast Spain, where rivers from the Pyrenees Range ensure the availability of abundant water resources. The transformation of the Riegos del Alto Aragón area (RAA), mainly during the second half of the 20th century, was subject to major problems during the 1960s and 1970s, including monoculture of poorly productive winter cereals, water wastage, and soil degradation. Since the 1990s the RAA has been affected by modernization involving: (i) a change in the mode of irrigation, from gravity to sprinkler systems; (ii) the concentration of plots to enlarge the size of irrigated fields; and (iii) the introduction of more productive and highly water-consuming crops (corn, lucerne, vegetables). These changes coincided with enlargement of the irrigated area, increasing water demand at a time of increasing water scarcity because of restriction on the construction of new large reservoirs and declining water resources, because of climate and land use changes. Addressing this major problem has required new strategies, specifically the construction of small reservoirs and water ponds within the irrigated area. The ponds increase water reserves and facilitate sprinkling irrigation by adding pressure to the system. However, this has involved a huge rise in electricity consumption, which has increased the cost of production.

García M.B. et al.- 12 páginas.- Ilustraciones.- Artículo publicado en Open Access bajo los términos de Creative Commons attribution Non Comercial License 3.0. [EN] The Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park and the Pyrenean Institute of Ecology (CSIC) recently joined the Spanish LTER network. As part of our strategy to understand recent changes in this protected area, we are carrying out a number of projects to evaluate changes at different spatio-temporal scales, using a variety of methods and approaches. We highlight here some of the most consolidated ones: long-term reconstructions from sedimentary lake records and cave speleothemes, the dynamics of one of the few active Iberian glaciers, the physico-chemical components of alpine streams, springs and lakes, the fingerprint of climatic change from ancient trees, changes in the composition and structure of biodiversity of alpine communities, natural and man-made grasslands at different altitudes, and the treeline, and population dynamics of endangered species or habitat indicators. The ecological monitoring shows that changes in both climate and land use, are having a strong influence in the physiognomy and structure of some of the most iconic and abundant habitats in the National Park. However, we found an important spatial variability in some processes, and also that others do not fit the established paradigms. The integration of partial results obtained from different methodologies and approaches diminishes the importance of each perception separately, helps to evaluate current changes in a long-term framework (geological scale), and will serve to validate the forecasts when modeling future environmental scenarios. [ES] Los espacios protegidos, por el hecho de albergar una gran geo-biodiversidad y asegurar una baja intervención humana, constituyen lugares muy adecuados para el seguimiento de organismos y procesos a escala ecológica, así como para la obtención de series temporales largas a escala geológica. En el marco de la red LTER-España, el Parque Nacional de Ordesa y Monte Perdido (PNOMP) y el Instituto Pirenaico de Ecología-CSIC están impulsando estudios para la detección de cambios a distintas escalas mediante variados métodos y aproximaciones. Destacamos aquí los más consolidados, entre los que se encuentran los análisis de registros de sedimentos en lagos, espeleotemas en cuevas, la dinámica de uno de los pocos glaciares activos de la Península ibérica, el análisis físico-químico de aguas corrientes e ibones de alta montaña, el registro del cambio climático actual en árboles longevos, la afección que éste ejerce sobre masas actuales de pinos en el límite superior del bosque y de abetales en zonas húmedas, la matorralización de algunos pastos y los procesos mecanicistas que subyacen, la reorganización de la diversidad florística en pastos tras el abandono paulatino o drástico de la ganadería, la biodiversidad de las comunidades alpinas y la dinámica poblacional de especies amenazadas o indicadoras de hábitats o de motores de cambio global. Los seguimientos ecológicos actuales muestran que tanto el cambio climático como el de usos del suelo están teniendo una considerable trascendencia en la fisionomía y la estructura de algunos de los ambientes más icónicos y frecuentes del parque (deterioro del glaciar, termofilización de la flora en cumbres alpinas, densificación del bosque en su límite superior, pérdida de productividad en algunos pastos supraforestales, etc.). También sugieren una importante variabilidad espacial en los procesos (por ej. en el PNOMP conviven pastos matorralizados y pastos muy estables), y evidencian que los cambios observados no siempre siguen los paradigmas establecidos (por ej., las especies amenazadas mantienen dinámicas poblacionales estables). La integración de resultados parciales proporcionados por cada aproximación relativiza la importancia de las percepciones que cada estudio destaca por separado, y permite medir los cambios actuales en el marco de referencia de los cambios a escala geológica.Predecir la resistencia y resiliencia de los ecosistemas o las poblaciones de seres vivos para enfrentarse a los futuros cambios ambientales es complicado, no sólo por la falta de conocimientos disponibles sino también porque las respuestas que observamos no siempre son tan rápidas o lineales como se espera. La modelización constituye una herramienta cada vez más utilizada, pero requiere de evidencias reales para validar sus pronósticos, por lo que la observación de los procesos que actúan en el PNOMP ha de incluir un esfuerzo continuado de monitorización multiescalar y multidisciplinar de los distintos componentes de la geo, hidro-, crio- y biosfera, sin olvidar el componente humano. Entender la complejidad supone conectar las interacciones que existen entre todos los sistemas y ponderar sus efectos según las escalas de trabajo. Los resultados presentados proceden de proyectos subvencionados por el Organismo Autónomo de Parques Nacionales: 125/2010 (C.L. Alados), 387/2011 (J.J. Camarero), 430/211 (M.B. García), 258/2011 (A. Moreno), 533S/2012 (P. Mata y M.I. Rieradeval), 623/2012 (M.I. Rieradeval), 083/2009 (B. Valero), 844/2013 (J.I. López-Moreno).

We review the evolution of glaciers in the Iberian Mountains during the Younger Dryas (12.9–11.7 ka, following the chronology of Greenland Stadial 1 – GS1) and compare with available environmental and climate data to investigate glacier dynamics during cold stadial episodes. The best examples of Younger Dryas moraines are found in the Central Pyrenees, involving short ice tongues up to 4 km in length in the highest massifs (above 3000 m a.s.l.) of the southern versant. Small cirque glaciers and rock glaciers formed during the YD occurred in other Pyrenean massifs, in the Cantabrian Range and in the Gredos and Guadarrama sierras (Central Range), as indicated by several rocky, polished thresholds that were ice-free at the beginning of the Holocene. Although some former rock glaciers were re-activated during the Younger Dryas, glacial activity was limited in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula (Sierra Nevada). Most Iberian records show vegetation changes during the YD characterized by a forest decline and an expansion of shrubs (mainly Juniperus) and steppe herbs, although the vegetation response was not homogeneous because of variable resilience among ecosystems. Available records also document a variable lake response in terms of hydrology and productivity, with a decrease in sedimentation rates and organic productivity in most high altitude lakes and increases in salinity and relatively lower lake levels at lower altitudes. The impact of the Younger Dryas on the coastal environment was almost negligible, but it was responsible for a brief cessation in sea level rise. High-resolution analyses of new speleothem records have documented a double structure for the YD with an earlier drier phase followed by a relatively more humid period. The review of geomorphological evidence demonstrates a strong latitudinal control of glacial activity during the YD, with more intense development in the northern than in the southern regions. The increase in humidity during the second phase of the YD in southern latitudes could have been a decisive factor for glacier advance in the northern Iberian mountains.

Producción Científica, This paper analyzes the evolution of the Monte Perdido Glacier, the third largest glacier in the Pyrenees, from 1981 to the present. We assessed the evolution of the glacier's surface area by analysis of aerial photographs from 1981, 1999, and 2006, and changes in ice volume by geodetic methods with digital elevation models (DEMs) generated from topographic maps (1981 and 1999), airborne lidar (2010) and terrestrial laser scanning (TLS, 2011, 2012, 2013, and 2014) data. We interpreted the changes in the glacier based on climate data from nearby meteorological stations. The results indicate that the degradation of this glacier accelerated after 1999. The rate of ice surface loss was almost three times greater during 1999–2006 than during earlier periods. Moreover, the rate of glacier thinning was 1.85 times faster during 1999–2010 (rate of surface elevation change = −8.98 ± 1.80 m, glacier-wide mass balance = −0.73 ± 0.14 m w.e. yr−1) than during 1981–1999 (rate of surface elevation change = −8.35 ± 2.12 m, glacier-wide mass balance = −0.42 ± 0.10 m w.e. yr−1). From 2011 to 2014, ice thinning continued at a slower rate (rate of surface elevation change = −1.93 ± 0.4 m yr−1, glacier-wide mass balance = −0.58 ± 0.36 m w.e. yr−1). This deceleration in ice thinning compared to the previous 17 years can be attributed, at least in part, to two consecutive anomalously wet winters and cool summers (2012–2013 and 2013–2014), counteracted to some degree by the intense thinning that occurred during the dry and warm 2011–2012 period. However, local climatic changes observed during the study period do not seem sufficient to explain the acceleration of ice thinning of this glacier, because precipitation and air temperature did not exhibit statistically significant trends during the study period. Rather, the accelerated degradation of this glacier in recent years can be explained by a strong disequilibrium between the glacier and the current climate, and likely by other factors affecting the energy balance (e.g., increased albedo in spring) and feedback mechanisms (e.g., heat emitted from recently exposed bedrock and debris covered areas)., Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad - IBERNIEVE (project CGL2014-52599-P), Ministerio de Agricultura y Pesca, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente (project 844/2013)

11 Pags.- 3 Tabls.- 5 Figs., Alpine treelines are considered monitors of the effects of climate on forest growth and dynamics. Treelines are expected to react to current climate warming by showing upslope migrations. However, treeline dynamics are often characterized by lagged responses to rising temperatures, that is, treeline inertia. In addition, encroachment within the treeline ecotone seems to be a more widespread response to climate warming than treeline ascent. We investigate how the treeline responds to climate in a Pyrenean site with an intense Mountain pine (Pinus uncinata) regeneration but also abundant dead trees. We use dendrochronology to reconstruct treeline dynamics (growth, tree recruitment, and death) and to build an age structure of Pyrenean Mountain pine forests, and relate them to temperature reconstructions of the study area. We also describe the spatial structure and estimate the size reproductive threshold of pine recruits. The study treeline showed profuse pine recruitment in the 1980s. These recruits were spatially aggregated and reached the 50% probability of reproduction at 24 years old. Most Pyrenean Mountain pines were recruited in the first half of the 18th century, a warm period when growth was stable, while old treeline trees recruited not only in those decades but also in previous warm periods. Pine deaths concentrated in the cool transition between the mid 17th and the early 18th centuries and mainly from 1820 to 1860, when growth declined as a consequence of temperatures rapidly dropping at the end of the Little Ice Age. Only the amount of dead pines at the treeline was negatively related to temperatures, indicating that cool periods cause high adult mortality rates and trigger long-term treeline decline. But this decline was interrupted by intense regeneration and treeline encroachment, two features that characterize recent treeline dynamics in some mountains. This concurs with the view of a rapid response of alpine treelines to climate during the late 20th century., This study was supported by projects AMB95-0160 and CGL2011-26654 (Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness) and 387/2011 and 1032S/2013 (Spanish Ministry of Agriculture and Environment, Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales, Spain).

Using a database of all the catalogued dolmens and stone circles in six Pyrenean valleys, we investigated the distribution of these megalithic monuments on the basis of elevation, gradient, aspect, terrain ruggedness, and terrain position, and identified factors potentially explaining the distribution of the monuments. A map of the areas having the highest probabilities of occurrence of megalithic monuments was developed, and showed that megalithic monuments are located in relatively accessible areas having gentle gradients and low terrain ruggedness close to the fluvial network, with wide U-shaped glacial valleys being the preferred locations. The altitudinal distribution showed one concentration of dolmens and stone circles at relatively low elevation (1250–1400 m a.s.l.) in the mid montane belt, and another at high elevation, at approximately the level of the timberline (1750–1900 m a.s.l.) adjacent to the alpine belt. Today, both areas are pastures that have historically sustained livestock, the traditional economic basis of Pyrenean valleys. The map showing the probability of occurrence of megalithic monuments in the study area suggests that a number of potentially favorable areas were largely inaccessible or too far from the main livestock routes, and remained forested until the Middle Ages. These findings and a variety of archaeological studies contribute to propose that the first shepherds: (i) understood the altitudinal organization of mountain areas; (ii) used the best accessible flat areas in the mid montane belt in late spring and early summer; and (iii) used the upper subalpine/alpine belt in summer.

31 Pags.- 4 Tabls- 6 Figs. The definitive version is available at: https://link.springer.com/journal/10113, The montane and subalpine belts in European mountains were affected by intense land use/land cover changes during the twentieth century. In the case of the subalpine belt, most European mountains were affected by complex deforestation processes from Neolithic times, leading to the expansion of summer grasslands to support grazing by transhumant sheep and goats flocks. This resulted in an altitudinal reduction of the tree line and the occurrence of severe soil erosion and shallow landsliding. The intense livestock pressure over centuries explains why the landscape remained without major change until the middle of the twentieth century. Since then, depopulation, land abandonment, and the disappearance of the transhumant system have resulted in a marked decline in livestock numbers and subsequent encroachment of shrubs and trees in the subalpine belt. The Urbión Mountains (Iberian Range, northern Spain) provides one of the clearest examples in the Iberian Peninsula, where there was intense deforestation since the Neolithic period to enlarge the area of subalpine summer grasslands. The recent reversal of this situation in the last decades led to (i) a marked trend to dense forest, which resulted in an average 200 m altitudinal advance, and (ii) the spatial contraction of shrublands, which have been replaced by dense forest in the highest areas. Changes will continue in the future, possibly enhanced by global warming., Support for this research was provided by the projects ESPAS (CGL2015-65569-R) and INDICA (CGL2011-27753-C02- 01 and -02), funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness.

This chapter reviews the most significant aspects of erosion in badlands, one of the most impressive erosion landforms on Earth. Badlands occur in arid, semiarid and humid areas, are characterized by intense erosion processes and generally have extremely high sediment yields. They lead to sedimentation in pediments, high sediment load in fluvial channels and sediment silting in reservoirs. The present study examines the factors that most affect erosion in badlands: lithology, seasonal contrasts in climate, rainfall intensity, and low plant cover, weathering and erosion processes, spatial and temporal variability of erosion processes and the complex spatial and temporal connections at the catchment scale. Two sections examine critical future issues: the relationship between conservation and reclamation in badlands and the future evolution of badland erosion in the context of global change. In many cases, badland initiation and development occurred due to interactions between climate changes and human activities, particularly the use of fire and cultivation on steep slopes of soft bedrock material. The largest badlands should be preserved as geomorphological monuments because of their importance to education, research and tourism.

Combined geomorphic features, stratigraphic characteristics and sedimentologic interpretation, coupled with optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dates, of a glacio-fluvio-lacustrine sequence (Linas de Broto, northern Spain) provide new information to understand the palaeoenvironmental significance of dynamics of glacier systems in the south-central Pyrenees during the Last Glacial Cycle (≈130 ka to 14 ka). The Linas de Broto depositional system consisted of a proglacial lake fed primarily by meltwater streams emanating from the small Sorrosal glacier and dammed by a lateral moraine of the Ara trunk glacier. The resulting glacio-fluvio-lacustrine sequence, around 55 m thick, is divided into five lithological units consisting of braided fluvial (gravel deposits), lake margin (gravel and sand deltaic deposits) and distal lake (silt and clay laminites) facies associations. Evolution of the depositional environment reflects three phases of progradation of a high-energy braided fluvial system separated by two phases of rapid expansion of the lake. Fluvial progradation occurred during short periods of ice melting. Lake expansion concurred with ice-dam growth of the trunk glacier. The first lake expansion occurred over a time range between 55 ± 9 ka and 49 ± 11 ka, and is consistent with the age of the Viu lateral moraine (49 ± 8 ka), which marks the maximum areal extent of the Ara glacier during the Last Glacial Cycle. These dates confirm that the maximum areal extent of the glacier occurred during Marine Isotope Stages 4 and 3 in the south-central Pyrenees, thus before the Last Glacial Maximum. The evolution of the Linas de Broto depositional system during this maximum glacier extent was modulated by climate oscillations in the northern Iberian Peninsula, probably related to latitudinal shifts of the atmospheric circulation in the southern North-Atlantic Ocean, and variations in summer insolation intensity.

La Geomorfología es una ciencia muy compleja desarrollada entre la Geografía y la Geología, con el objetivo de estudiar y explicar las formas de relieve a diferentes escalas espaciales y temporales. Este trabajo revisa aquellos aspectos que confirman la necesidad de ser global en Geomorfología. Las formas de relieve son el resultado de la actividad de procesos geomórficos sobre una estructura geológica durante un periodo de tiempo muy variable. Cada forma de relieve es consecuencia de una interacción compleja entre sustrato rocoso, disposición estructural, clima, actividad biológica, procesos geomórficos y tiempo. El papel de los geomorfólogos es desentrañar esa complejidad a partir del relieve actual, en el que los restos de formas de relieve y depósitos de diferente origen dan lugar a un palimpsesto en el que la mayor parte de la información ha desaparecido. La interpretación del relieve y su dinámica necesita análisis detallados y el empleo creciente de técnicas ligadas a ordenadores (teledetección y SIG), y especialmente una perspectiva global para interpretar el relieve y su dinámica. La colaboración con ecólogos ha contribuido a ampliar la función de los geomorfólogos en los estudios ambientales.

Fernández-Fernández, José M. et. al.- 18 páginas.- Ilustraciones.- © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved., In this study, fossil debris-covered glaciers are investigated and dated in the Sierra de la Demanda, northern Spain. They are located in glacial valleys of approximately 1 km in length, where several moraines represent distinct phases of the deglaciation period. Several boulders in the moraines and fossil debris-covered glaciers were selected for analysis of Be-10 surface exposure dating. A minimum age of 17.8 +/- 2.2 ka was obtained for the outermost moraine in the San Lorenzo cirque, and was attributed to the global Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) or earlier glacial stages, based on deglaciation dates determined in other mountain areas of northern Spain. The youngest moraines were dated to approximately 16.7 +/- 1.4 ka, and hence correspond to the GS-2a stadial (Oldest Dryas). Given that the debris-covered glaciers fossilize intermediate moraines, it was deduced that they developed between the LGM and the Oldest Dryas, coinciding with a period of extensive deglaciation. During this deglaciation phase, the cirque headwalls likely discharged large quantities of boulders and blocks that covered the residual ice masses. The resulting debris-covered glaciers evolved slowly because the debris mantle preserved the ice core from rapid ablation, and consequently they remained active until the end of the Late Glacial or the beginning of the Holocene (for the San Lorenzo cirque) and the Holocene Thermal Maximum (for the Mencilla cirque). The north-facing part of the Mencilla cirque ensured longer preservation of the ice core. (C) 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved., Support for this research was provided by the projects ESPAS (CGL2015-65569-R) (MINECO/FEDER), MOUNTAIN WARMING (CGL2015-65813-R) (Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness). The study was assisted by the High Mountain Physical Geography research group (Complutense University of Madrid) and the research group on Geomorphology and Global Change, which is supported by the Aragon Government and the European Social Fund. The 10Be measurements were performed at the ASTER AMS national facility (CEREGE, Aix en Provence, France), which is supported by the INSU, CNRS and the ANR through the "Projets thematiques d'excellence" program for the "Equipements d'excellence" ASTER-CEREGE action and IRD. Jose M. Fernandez-Fernandez received a grant from the FPU programme (FPU14/0650) (Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport).

In this study, we document deglaciation in a sector of the southern–central Pyrenees (the Panticosa massif and the upper Gallego and Ossau valleys) using cosmic-ray exposure (CRE) dating methods, which were applied to samples from high altitude polished rock steps and rock glacier boulders. The obtained CRE dates show a coherent spatial distribution and confirm results previously obtained in this study area, thus demonstrating the reliability and robustness of the method. The results of analyses based on two distinct isotopes (10Be and 36Cl) are consistent, although the error is higher for results based on the 36Cl isotope. The study provides evidence for ice extent in the High Gallego Valley during the Oldest Dryas, with glacial advance until the bottom of the valleys, although the main glacier tongues remained disconnected from each other. During this period, the extent of glacier advance was directly related to the elevation of the associated summits. The Younger Dryas glaciers were constrained to cirques or very short ice tongues, and dating of the polished rock steps indicates that the ice masses were present until the first millennium of the Holocene. The Brazato rock glacier developed at the beginning of the Holocene and remained active until the Holocene Thermal Optimum, because of the protective effect of large masses of blocks and boulders.

41 Pags.- 14 Figs.- 1 Tabl. The definitive version is available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/0169555X, In this study the spatial distribution of shallow landslides in the upper montane and subalpine belts of the Urbión Mountains (Iberian Range, northern Spain) was investigated, particularly in relation to the spatial organization of deforestation and land cover. The upper montane and subalpine belts have been deforested several times since the Neolithic Period, to enlarge the area of summer grasslands for feeding transhumant sheep flocks. Consequently, the timberline was lowered by 400–600 m, and increased the occurrence of severe erosion processes, particularly shallow landslides. This study shows that most of the landslide scars are in the summer grasslands area, and that a remarkable extent of the subalpine belt area has been subjected to mass movements. In addition to land use, the soil characteristics and topography help explain the development of conditions most favorable to landsliding. Shallow landslide susceptibility was highest in the upper parts of the slopes near the divides, in areas having slope gradients of 10–30° and deep soils with an increasing proportion of clay with depth. The landslides were clustered and not randomly distributed, and the causes of this spatial distribution are discussed. The current trend of woody encroachment in the upper montane and subalpine belts, resulting from decreasing livestock pressure, will probably reduce the susceptibility of these areas to shallow landslides in the future., Support for this research was provided by the project CGL2015-65569-R (MINECO/FEDER).

51 Pags.- 9 Figs. The definitive version is available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1099-145X, Soil erosion is a threat to food security, especially in regions where the area of arable land is shrinking dramatically because of soil degradation. Research on soil erosion expanded progressively throughout the 20th centu\ry, although a number of unresolved problems persist despite this issue being crucial for the environment and the welfare of society. Some basic unresolved issues, including the absence of a universally accepted definition of soil erosion and disagreement about how to measure it have contributed to a degree of scientific stagnation. Accurate prediction of the response of soils to disturbance is hampered by the dependence of the erosion process on the spatial scale involved, the time lag between the disturbance and the erosion response and the short periods for which data are typically available. We argue that devoting increased attention to the following environmental, demographic, political and societal issues will reinvigorate progress in the field. (i) The relationships between on-site and off-site consequences of soil erosion need to be elucidated if the economic and environmental costs are to be adequately assessed. (ii) Effective measures for soil conservation need to focus on spatial patterns of plant cover that reduce sediment connectivity, and most importantly on the relationships between hillslopes and sediment transfer in eroded channels. (iii) The scientific community must be able to identify early warning signs of critical transitions, if irreversible soil degradation is to be prevented. (iv) Consensus needs to be reached concerning the contribution of soil erosion to the carbon cycle. (v) The consequences of climate change on erosion and sediment transport should be investigated in depth. (vi) The general society needs to perceive soil erosion as a critical matter requiring an urgent response., This research was supported by the projects ESPAS (CGL2015-65569-R) and INDICA (CGL2011-27753-C02-01 and 02) (MINECO/FEDER). The research groups on “Geomorphology and Global Change” and “Climate, Water, Global Change and Natural Systems” were financed by the Aragón Government and the European Social Fund (ESF). E. Nadal-Romero was the recipient of a “Ramón y Cajal” postdoctoral contract (Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness). The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013) under grant agreement no 603498 (RECARE project).

Channel changes are the consequence of changes in sediment yield from the slopes and in the connectivity between slopes and channels because of distinct land use and climate impacts. In this study, we investigated the characteristics and evolution of a short reach in the headwater of the Ijuez River, central–southern Pyrenees. Assessment of a series of sedimentary and geomorphic structures confirmed major changes to the valley bottom, mainly related to changes in the intensity of human activity. The oldest sedimentary structure is a terrace level located 3 to 4 m above the current alluvial plain. General deforestation, overgrazing and recurring fires in the montane belt (1100–1600 m a.s.l.) have led to increased soil erosion and connectivity, and to the triggering of debris flows that have been deposited on the fluvial terrace. Woody fragments from within the debris flows were dated using accelerator mass spectrometry 14C radiocarbon techniques (AMS), yielding ages between 100 and 115 cal years bp, which coincides with the period of maximum deforestation and human density in the Pyrenees. Depopulation and farmland abandonment since the beginning of the 20th century has resulted in generalized natural and artificial reforestation, a shrinkage of the eroded areas and a decline in connectivity between slopes and the channel. The most important consequence has been channel incision and narrowing, and the development of a sediment armour layer. Active sediment transport is continuing, although there has been a decrease in sediment yield from the slopes. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Producción Científica The dynamics of the torrential upper reach of the Ijuez River, Central Spanish Pyrenees, was analyzed in relation to the spatial organization of grain size. The reach is located in the Eocene flysch, which usually acts as a high sediment production area, particularly during periods of intense human activity. The Ijuez Valley was cultivated and densely populated until the middle of the 20th century, resulting in general deforestation and the development of debris flows, shallow landslides, sheet wash erosion and deep gullies. As a consequence, the alluvial plain became characterized by the presence of large quantities of coarse sediment. The spatial organization of sediment showed a progressive downstream decline in the cobble and boulder size, especially in the channel, whereas the remainder of the alluvial plain showed large variability. No trend in the occurrence of the largest boulders was evident throughout the reach, confirming the importance of debris and hyperconcentrated flows in sediment transport. The torrential reach did not have a negative exponential longitudinal profile, in contrast to that usually observed for mountain rivers. This was attributed to the large quantity of heterometric sediment derived from the hillslopes, which resulted in no marked decline in sediment size and consequent change in the longitudinal profile. A recent trend of scouring was detected, reflecting the reduction in sediment supply following farmland abandonment and reforestation, which have reduced connectivity between the hillslopes and the channel. Se estudia un tramo torrencial en la cabecera del río Ijuez, Pirineo central español, con el fin de analizar su dinámica en relación con la distribución espacial de los sedimentos. Este tramo se instala en el flysch eoceno, que habitualmente se comporta como altamente productor de sedimento, especialmente en condiciones de intensa actividad humana. El valle del río Ijuez fue cultivado y densamente poblado hasta mediados del siglo XX, causando la eliminación de la mayoría de los bosques y dando lugar a flujos de derrubios (debris flows), deslizamientos superficiales, erosión difusa y formación de barrancos muy activos. La consecuencia fue el desarrollo de una llanura aluvial caracterizada por el escombrado de grandes volúmenes de sedimento grueso. La organización espacial de los sedimentos muestra un progresivo descenso en el tamaño de los cantos, especialmente en el cauce actual, y mucho menos en el resto de la llanura aluvial, donde la variabilidad es muy grande. Los grandes bloques no presentan ninguna tendencia a lo largo del curso, reflejando la importancia de los flujos de derrubios e hiperconcentrados en el transporte de sedimento. El tramo torrencial estudiado no muestra un perfil longitudinal exponencial negativo, al contrario de lo que es habitual en los ríos de montaña. Este fenómeno se atribuye a la gran cantidad de sedimentos heterométricos que llegan masivamente desde las laderas, que impiden un marcado descenso en el tamaño del sedimento y el consiguiente ajuste del perfil longitudinal. Se ha detectado una tendencia reciente hacia la incisión del río en sus propios sedimentos, reflejando la reducción en el aporte de estos últimos debido al abandono de tierras y la reforestación, limitando la conectividad entre laderas y cauce. Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad - Proyectos (CGL2011-27753-CO2-01 y 02) y (CGL2011-27574-CO2-CO1)

The definitive version is available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X13003073#, [EN] Intense erosion processes are widespread in the Mediterranean region, and include sheet wash erosion, rilling, gullying, shallow landsliding, and the development of large and active badlands in both subhumid and semi-arid areas. This review analyses the main environmental and human features related to soil erosion processes, and the main factors that explain the extreme variability of factors influencing soil erosion, particularly recent land use changes. The importance of erosion in the Mediterranean is related to the long history of human activity in a region characterized by low levels of annual precipitation, the occurrence of intense rainstorms and long-lasting droughts, high evapotranspiration, the presence of steep slopes and the occurrence of recent tectonic activity, together with the recurrent use of fire, overgrazing and farming. These factors have resulted in a complex landscape in which intensification and abandonment, wealth and poverty can co-exist. The changing conditions of national and international markets and the evolution of population pressure are now the main drivers explaining land use changes, including farmland abandonment in mountain areas, the expansion of some subsidized crops to marginal lands, and the development of new terraces affected by landslides and intense soil erosion during extreme rainstorm events. The occurrence of human-related forest fires affecting thousands of hectares each year is a significant problem in both the northern and southern areas of the Mediterranean basin. Here, we highlight the rise of new scientific challenges in controlling the negative consequences of soil erosion in the Mediterranean region: 1) to reduce the effects and extent of forest fires, and restructure the spatial organization of abandoned landscapes; 2) to provide guidance for making the EU agricultural policy more adapted to the complexity and fragility of Mediterranean environments; 3) to develop field methods and models to improve the identification of runoff and sediment contributing areas; 4) to contribute to the conservation of landscapes (i.e. bench-terraced fields) having high cultural and productivity values; 5) to improve knowledge of the hydrological and geomorphological functioning of badlands, with the aim of reducing sediment yield and accessibility; 6) to better understand the effect of climate change on soil erosion in the Mediterranean region; and 7) to improve quantitative information on long-term soil erosion., Support for this research was provided by the projects INDICA (CGL2011- 27753-C02-01 and -02), HIDROCAES (CGL2011-27574-C02-01) and DISDROSPEC (CGL2011-24815), funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF-FEDER), ACQWA (FP7-ENV- 2007-1-212250), financed by the European Commission, and an agreement between the CSIC and the Spanish Ministry of Environment (RESEL). The Geomorphology and Global Change research group was financed by the Aragón Government and the European Social Fund (ESF-FSE). E. Nadal-Romero and N. Lana-Renault benefited from a research contract (Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Programme Juan de la Cierva). The authors acknowledge the comments from Prof. Mike Fullen and an anonymous referee, as well as the editorial labour from Prof. Takashi Oguchi.

Support for this research was provided by the projects INDICA (CGL2011-27753-C02-01 and −02) and HIDROCAES (CGL2011-27574-C02-01), funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Innovation; ACQWA (FP7-ENV-2007-1-212250), financed by the European Commission; and an agreement between the CSIC and the Spanish Ministry of Environment (RESEL). The research group on Geomorphology and Global Change was financed by the Aragon Government and the European Social Fund (ESF-FSE). N. Lana-Renault and E. Nadal-Romero were recipients of a research contract (Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Programme Juan de la Cierva).

We are very grateful to all the referees for their indispensable and unselfish work that greatly contributed to the improvement of the quality of the papers. The Department of the Environment and the Department of Science, Technology and University of the Aragón Government, as well as the Innovation Ministry of the Spanish Government (CGL2011-12465), provided financial support to organise the scientific meeting “Geomorphological Research in Spain” (Zaragoza, September, 2011). We thank the International Association of Geomorphologists (IAG), the Spanish Society of Geomorphology (SEG), and the Spanish Society of Quaternary Studies (AEQUA) for supporting the initiative. We are also very grateful to Dr. Cinta Marín for helping with the preparation of the bibliometric data and supplementary material presented in this guest editorial.

38 páginas, 2 tablas, 11 figuras, [EN] Debris flows occurred three weeks after a wildfire in August 1986 in the Najerilla River valley in the Iberian Range, northern Spain. The flows were triggered by a brief, intense rainstorm (approximately 25 mm h− 1 over 15 min) in a small area with steep slopes covered by a thick colluvium of quartzite clasts. This storm resulted in the development of several unconfined hillslope debris flows and the formation of an alluvial fan at the mouth of the Pítare stream, which partially blocked the Najerilla River. We analysed the conditions that led to the development of the debris flows, and estimated the rainfall threshold for the debris flows to occur as well as the total volume of mobilised sediment. Four factors contributed to the debris flows: (i) the occurrence of a rainstorm three weeks after a wildfire, which had removed the plant cover from the soil; (ii) the steep slopes in the area (> 30°), which were the most affected by debris flows; (iii) the presence of quartzite scarps on the hillslopes, which favoured the development of a ‘firehose effect’ involving channelised surface runoff; and (iv) the low plasticity index values of the fine material of the colluvium (indices of 7 to 8), which enabled rapid liquefaction. Estimates of rainfall intensity derived from the estimated peak flow in the Pítare stream suggests that around 80 mm of rainfall fell in approximately 15 min, although this is clearly an overestimated value given the high proportion of sediment load transported during the peak flow. Various equations estimated a rainfall-threshold of approximately 25 mm h− 1 considering a concentration time of 15 min. The total sediment transported by the debris flows was 10,500 m3 (15,750 Mg, 6800 Mg km− 2), and the Pítare stream alone transported a minimum of 4000 m3 (6000 Mg, 2500 Mg km− 2). These results suggest that the rainfall threshold for initiating debris flows decreases following a wildfire, such that an ordinary rainstorm is able to trigger a severe erosion and sediment transport event. Given the absence of fresh landslide scars on the hillslopes, the origin of the fire-related debris flows in the Najerilla River valley appears to have been directly linked to increased rates of overland flow having a greater effect than infiltration for triggering debris flows., Support for this research was provided by the projects PROBASE (CGL2006-11619/HID) and INDICA (CGL2011-27753-C02-01 and CGL2011-27753-C02-02), which was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science, and ACQWA (FP7-ENV-2007-1-212250), which was financed by the European Commission. Noemí Lana-Renault was the recipient of a research contract (Programme “Juan de la Cierva”, Human Resources Mobility, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitivity). The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr. Susan Canon, Dr. Francisco Gutiérrez-Santolalla and an anonymous reviewer for their comments and suggestions, which significantly helped to improve this paper.

In this paper we synthesize the research in glacial geomorphology and geochronology in northern Spain, with special attention to the evidence of local glacier maximum extent earlier than the global LGM of MIS 2 (18-21. ka BP). More accurate models of glacier evolution have been defined based on limnogeological, geochronological and geomorphological data. In the Pyrenees, OSL (Optically Stimulated Luminescence), surface exposure and radiocarbon dating techniques have identified end moraines and fluvial terraces corresponding to MIS 6 (about 170. ka) and even to MIS 8 (about 260. ka), and also established the timing of the last local glacial maxima as prior to global LGM (MIS 4, ca. 50-70. ka). During the global LGM a smaller re-advance occurred but glaciers reached different extents in the Central and the Eastern Pyrenees. In NW Iberia, radiocarbon and OSL techniques point to local glacial maximum prior to ca 26. ka-38. ka and probably synchronous with 45. ka. Although some bias might have been introduced by the dating procedures, this review demonstrates that in both regions the local maximum extent occurred prior to the global LGM. The asynchronies between the glacial maxima chronologies in the different mountain ranges of northern Spain suggest that local climate factors exert a strong control on mountain glacier dynamics. © 2012 Elsevier B.V., This research has been funded through the projects LIMNOCAL (CGL2006-13327-C04-01) and GRACCIE (CONSOLIDER Program, CSD2007-00067) provided by the Spanish Inter-Ministry Commission of Science and Technology (CICYT). Additional funding was provided by the Spanish National Parks Agency (OAPN) through the Project 53/2006 and the Fundación Patrimonio Natural de Castilla y León (Sanabria project); and by the Project PC 10‐14 (Geoarchaeology and Global Change in Asturias) provided by FICYT-RIOGLASS. The authors thank Dr. Cendrero, Dr. Woodward and another anonymous reviewer for their comments and suggestions that contributed to improve the original manuscript. L. Rodríguez-Rodríguez has developed her research under a Severo Ochoa Programme fellowship (FICYT- Asturias).

The Aragón river was dammed at the foothills of the Pyrenean Inner Depression in 1959. Since then sediments are accumulated and its initial water storage capacity has been reduced. In this work, a study of the transport of sediments in the hydrological network of the Aragón river catchment until the Yesa reservoir has been undertaken based on the sampling of surface waters in 44 sites representative of the main subcatchments of the Aragón river. Three surveys were carried out in winter and summer. Total suspended sediments, electrical conductivity as an expression of dissolved solids content and pH were analysed in the water samples. Records of discharges at gauging stations of the water authorities were used as controls. The highest concentrations of suspended sediments occur during the winter sampling in the Esca river (54.4 mg l -1) and also after the storm events during the summer sampling in the headwaters of the Aragón river (21.7 mg l -1). The estimation of the dissolved solids indicates that the transport of materials in solution is much lower (0.08 - 0.25 mg l -1) than the suspended sediment load. The results provide information on the features of the transport of suspended and dissolved materials across the basin. The role played by lithology, vegetation cover, land use and drainage characteristics in the transport of sediments is examined for the different periods of sampling. Information gained with this research can be of interest as the headwater catchments in mountain areas are the main sources of water to lowlands. The knowledge on the process of sediment transport can be applied for the management of water bodies to prevent reservoir siltation.

The authors indentify the source-areas of sediments in a braided river. Studying the slope dynamics and the gravel-size along the channel, they conclude that the mass movements and the active headwaters of ravines are the most important areas o.f sediment production. In this sense, some tributaries into the Sierra de la Demanda and the basin border conglomerates behave as responsible sectors of the origin and increase of braiding.

Debris flows and fluvial dynamics in torrential rivers of Central Pyrenees. A great accumulation o heterometric deposits is studied in the headwater of the Ijuez river, Central Spanish Pyrenees, triggered by successive debris flows. The granulometric and sedimentological characteristics of the depositare analyzed and they are compared with the fluvial-type sedúnents, located downstream. Some aspects of the influence of these deposits on the general dynamics of the main river are discussed.

45 páginas, 8 fotos, 7 figuras, 2 tablas, 1 mapa., [ES] En el flysch eoceno de la vertiente metidional de los Pirineos tienen lugar importantes procesos de erosión ligados a dos grandes sistemas morfogenéticos, uno pluvial y otro relacionado más con las características de la fusión de la nieve. El tránsito entre ambos sistemas se opera alrededor de los 1.600 m. de altitud. Las formas de erosión (vertientes con arroyamiento difuso, desprendimientos, solifluxión, rigolas, cabeceras activas de torrentes...), se han puesto de manifiesto en un mapa geomorfológico y se han relacionado estadísticamente con la pendiente, la exposición, la altitud y la cobertera forestal. Estos factores controlan en buena parte la distribución de cada forma de erosión, si bien la acción humana tiene asimismo una gran importancia, sobre todo entre 600 y 1.200 m. de altitud. Los autores analizan finalmente algunos aspectos funcionales de las distintas formas de erosión, integrándolas en tres ambientes clásicos dentro del flysch: las vertientes supraforestales, el bosque y las áreas degradadas y con cultivos abandonados.

33 páginas, 9 figuras.- Versión pre-print, [EN] The Aragón Valley glacier (Central Western Pyrenees) has been studied since the late nineteenth century and has become one of the best areas in the Pyrenees to study the occurrence of Pleistocene glaciations and the relationships between moraines and fluvial terraces. New morphological studies and absolute ages for moraines and fluvial terraces in the Aragón Valley allow a correlation with other Pyrenean glaciers and provide solid chronologies about the asynchroneity between global last glacial maximum (LGM) and the maximum ice extent (MIE). Six frontal arcs and three lateral morainic ridges were identified in the Villanúa basin terminal glacial complex. The main moraines (M1 and M2) correspond to two glacial stages (oxygen isotopic stages MIS 6 and MIS 4), dated at 171±22ka and 68±7ka, respectively. From a topographical point of view, moraine M1 appears to be linked to the 60m fluvioglacial terrace, dated in a tributary of the Aragón River at 263±21ka. The difference in age between M1 moraine and the 60m fluvioglacial terrace suggests that the latter belongs to an earlier glacial stage (MIS 8). Moraine M2 was clearly linked to the fluvioglacial 20m terrace. Other minor internal moraines were related to the 7-8m terrace. The dates obtained for the last glacial cycle (20-18ka) are similar to other chronologies for Mediterranean mountains, and confirm the occurrence of an early MIE in the Central Pyrenees that does not coincide with the global LGM. © 2012 Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography., Support for this research was provided by the projects CALIBRE-LIMNOCAL (CGL2006-13327-C04-01) and GRACCIE-CONSOLIDER (CSD2007-00067), financed by the Spanish Inter-Ministry Commission of Science and Technology; and PIRINEOS ABRUPT (PM073/2007), financed by the Diputación General de Aragón. Additional funding was provided by the Spanish National Parks Agency through the project “Evolución climática y ambiental del Parque Nacional Picos de Europa desde el ultimo máximo glaciar” (ref. 53/2006), provided by the Spanish Ministry of Environment. The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr P.D. Hughes and an anonymous reviewer for their comments and suggestions, which significantly improve this paper.