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Oxidative stress has been demonstrated to play a pivotal role in the pathological processes of many neurodegenerative diseases. In the present study, we demonstrated that Chrysanthemum boreale Makino extract (CBME) suppresses oxidative stress-induced neurotoxicity in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells and elucidated the underlying molecular mechanism. Our observations revealed that CBME effectively protected neuronal cells against H2O2-induced cell death by preventing caspase-3 activation, Bax upregulation, Bcl-2 downregulation, activation of three mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and NF-κB phosphorylation, and iNOS induction. These results provide evidence that CBME has remarkable neuroprotective properties in SH-SY5Y cells against oxidative damage, suggesting that the complementary or even alternative role of CBME in preventing and treating neurodegenerative diseases is worth further studies.

Janus kinase 1 (JAK1) plays a key role in most cytokine-mediated inflammatory and autoimmune responses through JAK/STAT signaling; thus, JAK1 inhibition is a promising therapeutic strategy for several diseases. Analysis of the binding modes of current JAK inhibitors to JAK isoforms allowed the design of N-alkyl-substituted 1-H-pyrrolo[2,3-b] pyridine carboxamide as a JAK1-selective scaffold, and the synthesis of various methyl amide derivatives provided 4-((cis-1-(4-chlorobenzyl)-2-methylpiperidin-4-yl)amino)-N-methyl-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridine-5-carboxamide (31g) as a potent JAK1-selective inhibitor. In particular, the (S,S)-enantiomer of 31g (38a) exhibited excellent potency for JAK1 and selectivity over JAK2, JAK3, and TYK2. On investigating the effect of 31g on hepatic fibrosis, it was found that it reduces the proliferation and fibrogenic gene expression of TGF-β-induced hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). Specifically, 31g significantly inhibited TGF-β-induced migration of HSCs at 0.25 μM in wound-healing assays.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to compare the acute effects of high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) with moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE) on arterial stiffness, cerebral blood flow and cognitive function in young smokers.METHODS: Young smokers (23.1 years & 7.2 pack years) were randomly assigned to either MICE (n=5) or HIIE (n=4) group. MICE was implemented at 70% of HRmax for 30 minutes. HIIE was performed at 70% and 90% of HRmax for 24 minutes. Central artery stiffness was assessed by aortic pulse wave velocity (cfPWV), augmentation index (AIx) at pre and post-exercise, and 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 24 hours following the exercises. Cerebral blood flow was continuously monitored using near-infrared spectroscopy technique before and during exercise, and at 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, and 24 hours following the exercises. Cognitive function was assessed by Stroop Color-Word test at pre-exercise, and 30 minutes and 24 hours following the exercises.RESULTS: There was no significant group by time interaction in cfPWV, AIx, cerebral blood flow (HbO2) level, and cognitive function. Compared with MICE, cfPWV was increased (p=.01) at 30 minutes but AIx was decreased (p=.02) at 1 hour following HIIE. When MICE and HIIE combined, arterial stiffness and cerebral blood flow measures, and cognitive function parameters were improved following even one-bout of exercise (p≤.049). Change in AIx was associated with change in cognitive function at 30 minutes following the exercises (r=.69, p=.06).CONCLUSIONS: Even one-bout of either MIIE or HIIT acutely improves aortic wave reflection, cerebral blood flow and cognitive function in young smokers. The intensity of aerobic exercise does not seem to make meaningful differences in the positive effects on arterial stiffness, cerebral blood flow, and cognitive function in young smokers if both exercises have the same volume.

Aims The aim of this study was to compare patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) and the Single Assessment Numerical Evaluation (SANE) score in patients treated with a volar locking plate for a distal radial fracture. Methods This study was a retrospective review of a prospective database of 155 patients who underwent internal fixation with a volar locking plate for a distal radial fracture between August 2014 and April 2017. Data which were collected included postoperative PROMs (Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand questionnaire (DASH) and Patient-Rated Wrist Evaluation (PRWE)), and SANE scores at one month (n = 153), two months (n = 155), three months (n = 144), six months (n = 128), and one year (n = 73) after operation. Patients with incomplete data were excluded from this study. Correlation and agreement between PROMs and SANE scores were evaluated. Subgroup analyses were carried out to identify correlations according to variables such as age, the length of follow-up, and subcategories of the PRWE score. Results The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) between PROMs and SANE scores was -0.76 (p < 0.001) for DASH and -0.72 (p < 0.001) for PRWE, respectively. Limits of agreement between PROMs and ‘100-SANE’ scores were met for at least 93% of the data points. In subgroup analysis, there were significant negative correlations between PROMs and SANE scores for all age groups and for follow-up of more than six months. The correlation coefficient between PRWE subcategories and SANE score was -0.67 (p < 0.001) for PRWE pain score and -0.69 (p < 0.001) for PRWE function score, respectively. Conclusion We found a significant correlation between postoperative SANE and PROMs in patients treated with a volar locking plate for a distal radial fracture. The SANE score is thus a reliable indicator of outcome for patients who undergo surgical treatment for a radial fracture. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(6):744–748.

This study determined the ingredient and salinity variations in

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and osteoarthritis (OA) are common chronic diseases that frequently co-exist. The link between OA and T2DM is attributed to common risk factors, including age and obesity. Several reports suggest that hyperglycemia and accumulated advanced glycosylation end-products might regulate cartilage homeostasis and contribute to the development and progression of OA. Metformin is used widely as the first-line treatment for T2DM. The drug acts by regulating glucose levels and improving insulin sensitivity. The anti-diabetic effects of metformin are mediated mainly via activation of adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which is an energy sensing enzyme activated directly by an increase in the AMP/ATP ratio under conditions of metabolic stress. Dysregulation of AMPK is strongly associated with development of T2DM and metabolic syndrome. In this review, we discuss common risk factors, the association between OA and T2DM, and the role of AMPK. We also address the adaptive use of metformin, a known AMPK activator, as a new drug for treatment of patients with OA and T2DM.

Acacetin, an important ingredient of acacia honey and a component of several medicinal plants, exhibits therapeutic effects such as antioxidative, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-plasmodial activities. However, to date, studies reporting a systematic investigation of the in vivo fate of orally administered acacetin are limited. Moreover, the in vitro physicochemical and biopharmaceutical properties of acacetin in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and their pharmacokinetic impacts remain unclear. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to systematically investigate the oral absorption and disposition of acacetin using relevant rat models. Acacetin exhibited poor solubility (&le, 119 ng/mL) and relatively low stability (27.5&ndash, 62.0% remaining after 24 h) in pH 7 phosphate buffer and simulated GI fluids. A major portion (97.1%) of the initially injected acacetin dose remained unabsorbed in the jejunal segments, and the oral bioavailability of acacetin was very low at 2.34%. The systemic metabolism of acacetin occurred ubiquitously in various tissues (particularly in the liver, where it occurred most extensively), resulting in very high total plasma clearance of 199 &plusmn, 36 mL/min/kg. Collectively, the poor oral bioavailability of acacetin could be attributed mainly to its poor solubility and low GI luminal stability.

Janus kinase 1 (JAK1) plays a key role in most cytokine-mediated inflammatory and autoimmune responses through JAK/STAT signaling; thus, JAK1 inhibition is a promising therapeutic strategy for several diseases. Analysis of the binding modes of current JAK inhibitors to JAK isoforms allowed the design of

Angiogenesis is the process of new blood vessel formation. Excessive angiogenesis is a critical factor in the progression of cancer, macular degeneration, and other chronic inflammatory diseases. When investigating the effects of crude extracts of cultured marine microorganisms, an extract of the cultured Streptomyces sp. YP127 strain was found to inhibit human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) tube formation. Bioassay-guided fractionation and spectroscopic data analyses led to the identification of napyradiomycin A1 (1) as an antiangiogenic component of the extract. Compound 1 inhibited HUVEC tube formation in a concentration-dependent manner. It inhibited endothelial cell proliferation but did not affect human dermal fibroblast proliferation. Compound 1 also suppressed migration and invasion of vascular endothelial cells. In addition, compound 1 suppressed vascular endothelial cadherin expression and increased the permeability of the endothelial cell membrane. These results suggested that compound 1 modulates cell permeability and inhibits the angiogenesis of endothelial cells.

Background Cinnamomum cassia bark is the outer skin of an evergreen tall tree belonging to the family Lauraceae containing several active components such as essential oils (cinnamic aldehyde and cinnamyl aldehyde), tannin, mucus and carbohydrate. They have various biological functions including anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, anti-inflammation, anti-diabetic and anti-tumor activity. Previously, we have reported that anti-cancer effect of cinnamon extracts is associated with modulation of angiogenesis and effector function of CD8+ T cells. In this study, we further identified that anti-tumor effect of cinnamon extracts is also link with enhanced pro-apoptotic activity by inhibiting the activities NFκB and AP1 in mouse melanoma model. Methods Water soluble cinnamon extract was obtained and quality of cinnamon extract was evaluated by HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography) analysis. In this study, we tested anti-tumor activity and elucidated action mechanism of cinnamon extract using various types of tumor cell lines including lymphoma, melanoma, cervix cancer and colorectal cancer in vitro and in vivo mouse melanoma model. Results Cinnamon extract strongly inhibited tumor cell proliferation in vitro and induced active cell death of tumor cells by up-regulating pro-apoptotic molecules while inhibiting NFκB and AP1 activity and their target genes such as Bcl-2, BcL-xL and survivin. Oral administration of cinnamon extract in melanoma transplantation model significantly inhibited tumor growth with the same mechanism of action observed in vitro. Conclusion Our study suggests that anti-tumor effect of cinnamon extracts is directly linked with enhanced pro-apoptotic activity and inhibition of NFκB and AP1 activities and their target genes in vitro and in vivo mouse melanoma model. Hence, further elucidation of active components of cinnamon extract could lead to development of potent anti-tumor agent or complementary and alternative medicine for the treatment of diverse cancers.

An inverse agonist of estrogen-related receptor-γ (ERRγ), an orphan nuclear receptor encoded by Esrrg, enhances sodium iodide symporter-mediated radioiodine uptake in anaplastic thyroid cancer (ATC) cells, thereby facilitating responsiveness to radioiodine therapy in vitro. We synthesized potent, selective, and orally bioavailable ERRγ-inverse agonists and evaluated their activity by analyzing in vitro pharmacology and absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity profiles. X-ray crystallographic analysis of the ligand and ERRγ complex showed that 35 completely binds to the target protein (PDB 6A6K). Our results showed improved radioiodine avidity in ATC cells through compound 35-mediated upregulation of iodide-handling genes, leading to enhanced responsiveness to radioiodine therapy in vitro. Importantly, in vivo 124I-positron emission tomography/computed tomography imaging revealed that 35 increases radioiodine avidity in CAL62 tumors. Collectively, these results demonstrated that 35 can...

The aggregation of amyloid beta (Aβ) proteins in senile plaques is a critical event during the development of Alzheimer's disease, and the postmortem detection of Aβ-rich proteinaceous deposits through fluorescent staining remains one of the most robust diagnostic tools. In animal models, fluorescence imaging can be employed to follow the progression of the disease, and among the different imaging methods, two-photon microscopy (TPM) has emerged as one of the most powerful. To date, several near-infrared-emissive two-photon dyes with a high affinity for Aβ fibrils have been developed, but there has often been a tradeoff between excellent two-photon cross-sections and large fluorescence signal-to-background ratios. In the current work, we introduced a twisted intramolecular charge state (TICT)-based de-excitation pathway, which results in a remarkable fluorescence increase of around 167-fold in the presence of Aβ fibrils, while maintaining an excellent two-photon cross section, thereby enabling high-contrast ex vivo and in vivo TPM imaging. Overall, the results suggest that adopting TICT de-excitation in two-photon fluorophores may represent a general method to overcome the tradeoff between probe brightness and signal-to-background ratio.

In the present study, we synthesized and evaluated the anti-inflammatory effects of three tryptamine (Trm) hybrid compounds, HBU-375, HBU-376 and HBU-379. The Click reaction between the azido-Trm and 2- or 4-propazylated paeonol moiety resulted in HBU-376 and HBU-375, respectively. HBU-379 was generated by hybridizing Trm with propazylated acetyl-syringic acid. HBU-376 and HBU-375 dose-dependently inhibited LPS and caused nitric oxide (NO) generation in BV2 cells, whereas HBU-379 minimally inhibited NO generation, indicating that the paeonol unit plays an important role in the anti-inflammatory effect of Trm hybrid compounds. Although HBU-375 and HBU-376 demonstrated a similar inhibitory effect on LPS-induced NO generation, HBU-376 resulted in less cellular toxicity presumably due to the free phenolic hydroxyl group of paeonol. Therefore, HBU-376 may be a promising anti-inflammatory agent conferring minimal cytotoxicity. HBU-376 significantly and dose-dependently inhibited LPS-induced NO products, NO synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), interleukin-6, MCP-1 and interleukin-1β mRNA expressions and iNOS and COX-2 protein expressions. However, at the same concentrations, Trm or paeonol individually did not inhibit LPS-mediated production of inflammatory molecules. HBU-376 inhibited both LPS-induced STAT-3 phosphorylation and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activation. Furthermore, LPS-mediated DNA binding of c-Rel, p50 and p52 to the NF-κB binding site of the iNOS promoter was inhibited by HBU-376, whereas Trm and paeonol did not inhibit LPS-induced NF-κB activation and DNA binding of c-Rel, p50 and p52. Overall, our data suggest that the Trm-paeonol hybrid compound down-regulates inflammatory responses by inhibiting NF-κB and NF-κB-dependent gene expression. This suggests that it is a potential therapeutic agent for inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system.

Importance Occult spinal dysraphism (OSD) is the most common congenital spinal anomaly. Cutaneous anomalies such as skin dimples or deviated gluteal folds are well known as stigmata of OSD and are indicators for further evaluation; however, the association between cutaneous anomalies and OSD has not been systemically evaluated. Objective To evaluate the incidence of OSD and the proportion of OSD cases managed with a neurosurgical intervention among neonates or infants with various cutaneous stigmata. Data Sources PubMed and Embase databases were searched for studies published up to July 25, 2018, that evaluated the proportion of OSD cases in neonates or infants with cutaneous stigmata. Search terms includedultrasound, dysraphism, dimple, andinfant or neonate. The search was limited to English-language publications. Study Selection Two reviewers selected the studies evaluating the incidence of OSD among neonates or infants with cutaneous stigmata. Data Extraction and Synthesis The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines for data extraction were followed. Pooled proportions of OSD cases and OSD cases that were managed with a neurosurgical intervention were obtained using the generalized linear mixed model and maximum likelihood method. Main Outcome and Measures The pooled incidence of OSD and OSD cases managed with neurological surgery among patients with cutaneous stigmata was the primary outcome. This outcome was also evaluated in each subgroup, and heterogeneity was explored using subgroup analysis. Results A total of 15 studies, involving 6558 neonate or infant patients with various cutaneous stigmata, were included. The pooled proportion of OSD cases among the patients with cutaneous stigmata was 2.8% (95% CI, 2.1%-3.8%;I2 = 51.6%), and the proportion managed with neurological surgery was 0.6% (95% CI, 0.3%-1.3%;I2 = 66.4%). Cases with combined stigmata showed a significantly higher association with OSD than those with a single stigma (10.5% [95% CI, 6.9%-15.8%] vs 2.3% [%, 95% CI, 1.5%-3.5%];P Conclusions and Relevance The proportion of OSD in healthy, asymptomatic patients with midline cutaneous stigmata was low, and the proportion of patients who underwent a neurosurgical intervention was even lower. However, a careful evaluation as well as potential spinal magnetic resonance imaging is recommended for neonates or infants with combined stigmata or an atypical dimple for possible high-risk lesions.

Allergic disorders such as atopic dermatitis and asthma are common hyper-immune disorders in industrialized countries. Along with genetic association, environmental factors and gut microbiota have been suggested as major triggering factors for the development of atopic dermatitis. Numerous studies support the association of hygiene hypothesis in allergic immune disorders that a lack of early childhood exposure to diverse microorganism increases susceptibility to allergic diseases. Among the symbiotic microorganisms (e.g. gut flora or probiotics), probiotics confer health benefits through multiple action mechanisms including modification of immune response in gut associated lymphoid tissue (GALT). Although many human clinical trials and mouse studies demonstrated the beneficial effects of probiotics in diverse immune disorders, this effect is strain specific and needs to apply specific probiotics for specific allergic diseases. Herein, we briefly review the diverse functions and regulation mechanisms of probiotics in diverse disorders.

The aim of the current study was to investigate the effects of glucosamine (GlcN) on septic lethality and sepsis-induced inflammation using animal models of mice and zebrafish. GlcN pretreatment improved survival in the cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis mouse model and attenuated lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced septic lung injury and systemic inflammation. GlcN suppressed LPS-induced M1-specific but not M2-specific gene expression. Furthermore, increased expressions of inflammatory genes in visceral tissue of LPS-injected zebrafish were suppressed by GlcN. GlcN suppressed LPS-induced activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and NF-κB in lung tissue. LPS triggered a reduction in O-GlcNAc levels in nucleocytoplasmic proteins of lung, liver, and spleen after 1 day, which returned to normal levels at day 3. GlcN inhibited LPS-induced O-GlcNAc down-regulation in mouse lung and visceral tissue of zebrafish. Furthermore, the O-GlcNAcase (OGA) level was increased by LPS, which were suppressed by GlcN in mouse and zebrafish. OGA inhibitors suppressed LPS-induced expression of inflammatory genes in RAW264.7 cells and the visceral tissue of zebrafish. Stable knockdown of Oga via short hairpin RNA led to increased inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression in response to LPS with or without GlcN in RAW264.7 cells. Overall, our results demonstrate a protective effect of GlcN on sepsis potentially through modulation of O-GlcNAcylation of nucleocytoplasmic proteins.

This study investigated changes in neuroinflammation and cognitive function in adult zebrafish exposed to acute hypoxia and protective effects of glucosamine (GlcN) against hypoxia-induced brain damage. The survival rate of zebrafish following exposure to hypoxia was improved by GlcN pretreatment. Moreover, hypoxia-induced upregulation of neuroglobin, NOS2α, glial fibrillary acidic protein, and S100β in zebrafish was suppressed by GlcN. Hypoxia stimulated cell proliferation in the telencephalic ventral domain and in cerebellum subregions. GlcN decreased the number of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU)-positive cells in the telencephalon region, but not in cerebellum regions. Transient motor neuron defects, assessed by measuring the locomotor and exploratory activity of zebrafish exposed to hypoxia recovered quickly. GlcN did not affect hypoxia-induced motor activity changes. In passive avoidance tests, hypoxia impaired learning and memory ability, deficits that were rescued by GlcN. A learning stimulus increased the nuclear translocation of phosphorylated cAMP response element binding protein (p-CREB), an effect that was greatly inhibited by hypoxia. GlcN restored nuclear p-CREB after a learning trial in hypoxia-exposed zebrafish. The neurotransmitters, γ-aminobutyric acid and glutamate, were increased after hypoxia in the zebrafish brain, and GlcN further increased their levels. In contrast, acetylcholine levels were reduced by hypoxia and restored by GlcN. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine partially reversed the impaired learning and memory of hypoxic zebrafish. This study represents the first examination of the molecular mechanisms underlying hypoxia-induced memory and learning defects in a zebrafish model. Our results further suggest that GlcN-associated hexosamine metabolic pathway could be an important therapeutic target for hypoxic brain damage.

We investigated the effects of exogenous sodium pyruvate (SP) on adipocyte differentiation, lipid accumulation, and the mRNA expression levels of adipogenesis-related genes in 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes. Differentiation of pre-adipocytes was induced by MDI (3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine: IBMX, dexamethasone: DEX, and insulin), in the presence or absence of SP. Adipogenesis was stimulated by SP in a concentration-dependent manner. SP also induced the expression of genes encoding aP2, GLUT4, and adiponectin, but had no effect on cell proliferation. Exogenous glucose did not promote adipogenesis or lipid accumulation. 2-deoxy-D-glucose inhibited adipogenesis initiated by MDI, but failed to influence the effects of SP on adipogenesis, whereas 3-bromopyruvate inhibited adipogenesis regardless of whether SP was present. The pro-adipogenic properties of SP were limited to the early events of adipogenesis. To determine whether SP mimics the adipogenic action of dexamethasone or insulin, we examined the effects of SP on adipogenesis with combinations of IBMX, DEX, and insulin. SP did not improve incomplete lipid accumulation observed in cells grown under IBMX-, DEX-, or insulin-free conditions. Insulin-stimulated ERK1/2 phosphorylation was diminished by SP, while phosphorylation of Akt was increased, correlating with increased glucose uptake in response to insulin. We also observed that SP stimulated immediate early expression of C/EBPβ and C/EBPδ. The PPARγ antagonist GW9662 inhibited adipogenesis. Our findings highlight the adipogenic function of exogenous SP by stimulating early events of adipogenesis.

Objective This study investigated the potential of glucosamine (GlcN) to affect body weight gain and insulin sensitivity in mice normal and at risk for developing diabetes. Methods Male C57BL/6 J mice were fed either chow diet (CD) or a high fat diet (HFD) and the half of mice from CD and HFD provided with a solution of 10% (w/v) GlcN. Total cholesterol and nonesterified free fatty acid levels were determined. Glucose tolerance test and insulin tolerance test were performed. HepG2 human hepatoma cells or differentiated 3 T3-L1 adipocytes were stimulated with insulin under normal (5 mM) or high glucose (25 mM) conditions. Effect of GlcN on 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) uptake was determined. JNK and Akt phosphorylation and nucleocytoplasmic protein O -GlcNAcylation were assayed by Western blotting. Results GlcN administration stimulated body weight gain (6.58 ± 0.82 g vs. 11.1 ± 0.42 g), increased white adipose tissue fat mass (percentage of bodyweight, 3.7 ± 0.32 g vs. 5.61 ± 0.34 g), and impaired the insulin response in livers of mice fed CD. However, GlcN treatment in mice fed HFD led to reduction of body weight gain (18.02 ± 0.66 g vs. 16.22 ± 0.96 g) and liver weight (2.27 ± 0.1 vs. 1.85 ± 0.12 g). Furthermore, obesity-induced insulin resistance and impaired Akt insulin signaling in the liver were alleviated by GlcN administration. GlcN inhibited the insulin response under low (5 mM) glucose conditions, whereas it restored the insulin response for Akt phosphorylation under high (25 mM) glucose conditions in HepG2 and 3 T3-L1 cells. Uptake of 2-DG increased upon GlcN treatment under 5 mM glucose compared to control, whereas insulin-stimulated 2-DG uptake decreased under 5 mM and increased under 25 mM glucose in differentiated 3 T3-L1 cells. Conclusion Our results show that GlcN increased body weight gain and reduced the insulin response for glucose maintenance when fed to normal CD mice, whereas it alleviated body weight gain and insulin resistance in HFD mice. Therefore, the current data support the integrative function of the HBP reflecting the nutrient status of lipids or glucose and further implicate the importance of the pathway in insulin signaling for the regulation of metabolism.

Although probiotics could confer health benefits to host physiology, their efficacy is strain specific. To identify anti-inflammatory probiotics, an ex vivo screening system was developed, and validated effector functions of selected candidates using experimental rheumatoid arthritis as an in vivo model. Lactobacillus helveticus HY7801 was selected as the best candidate. Oral administration of L. helveticus HY7801 prevented the development of collagen-induced experimental arthritis, and diminished disease progression and severity by reducing antigen specific IgG levels and inflammatory immune response. Administration of L. helveticus HY7801 may induce regulatory CD11c+ dendritic cells, which in turn induce a phenotypic alteration of immune cells by reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IFN-γ, and IL-17A) while enhancing anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) by CD4+ T cells. This study suggests that screening of probiotic strains based on the IL-10highIL-12low selection criterion may be applicable to identify anti-inflammatory probiotics as an efficacious food for treating inflammatory immune responses including rheumatoid arthritis.

IL-31 is a key mediator of itching in atopic dermatitis (AD) and is preferentially produced by activated CD4+ T cells and Th2 cells. Although pathophysiological functions of IL-31 have been suggested in diverse immune disorders, the molecular events underlying IL-31 gene regulation are still unclear. In this study we identified the transcription start site and functional promoter involved in IL-31 gene regulation in mouse CD4+ T cells. TCR stimulation–dependent IL-31 expression was found to be closely linked with in vivo binding of NFAT1 and JunB to the IL-31 promoter. Although NFAT1 alone enhanced IL-31 promoter activity, it was further enhanced in the presence of JunB. Conversely, knockdown of either NFAT1 or JunB resulted in reduced IL-31 expression. NFAT1-deficient CD4+ T cells showed a significant defect in IL-31 expression compared with wild-type CD4+ T cells. In agreement with these findings, mice subjected to atopic conditions showed much higher levels of IL-31, which were closely correlated with a significant increase in the number of infiltrated NFAT1+CD4+ T cells into the AD ears. Amelioration of AD progression by cyclosporin A treatment was well correlated with downregulation of IL-31 expressions in CD4+ T cells and total ear residual cells. In summary, our results suggest a functional cooperation between NFAT1 and JunB in mediating IL-31 gene expression in CD4+ T cells and indicate that interference with this interaction or their activity has the potential of reducing IL-31–mediated AD symptoms.

In the present study, we synthesized and evaluated the anti-inflammatory effects of dopamine and alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) hybrid compounds, ALA–dopamine (HBU-199) and its acetylated derivative, ALA-acetyl dopamine (HBU-200), in BV2 microglia and RAW264.7 macrophage cells. HBU-199 and HBU-200 both significantly and dose-dependently inhibited LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) productions, NO synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), interleukin-6 and interleukin-1β mRNA expressions and iNOS and COX-2 protein expressions. Furthermore, HBU-199 and HBU-200 protected RAW264.7 cells from activation-induced cell death. However, at same concentrations, dopamine or ALA did not inhibit LPS-mediated production of inflammatory molecules and activation-induced cell death. HBU-199 and HBU-200 inhibited LPS-induced inhibition of inhibitory kappa-B-alpha (IκB-α) phosphorylation and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activation. Furthermore, LPS-mediated DNA binding of p65 and p50 to the NF-κB binding site of the iNOS promoter was inhibited by HBU-199 and HBU-200, whereas dopamine and ALA did not inhibit LPS-induced NF-κB activation and IκB-α phosphorylation. Moreover, HBU-199 and HBU-200 suppressed LPS-stimulated phosphorylation of Akt, but not glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta. Overall, our data suggest that the ALA–dopamine hybrid compounds down-regulate inflammatory responses via inhibition of NF-κB and NF-κB-dependent gene expression, suggesting that it is a promising therapeutic agent for both systemic inflammatory diseases and inflammatory diseases of central nervous system.

Aims The objective of this study is to investigate glucosamine (GlcN) as a transcriptional regulator of iNOS and other genes in association with the dynamic O-GlcNAcylation of RNA polymerase II (RNAPII). Main methods The LPS- and/or GlcN-stimulated transcriptional activities of various Gal4-binding site/TATA-box-containing reporter constructs were measured. Key findings Basal transcriptional activities of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) reporter plasmids are inhibited by GlcN in RAW264.7 cells. Furthermore, GlcN suppressed whereas lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated the basal activity of Gal4-binding site/TATA-box-containing reporter constructs. LPS reduced the O-linked N-acetylglucosamine modification (O-GlcNAcylation) of RNAPII, but enhanced the binding of this enzyme to the iNOS promoter. In contrast, GlcN enhanced RNAPII O-GlcNAcylation, but inhibited iNOS promoter binding. Furthermore, the basal activities of reporter plasmids containing activator protein 1 (AP1), E2F, or cyclic AMP response element (CRE) binding sites were consistently inhibited by GlcN in a dose-dependent manner. However, GlcN did not inhibit the phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate- (PMA-) or forskolin-induced transcriptional activities of AP1 and CRE. The transcriptional activity of transforming growth factor alpha (TGF-α) was slightly increased by both LPS and GlcN. Significance In conclusion, our data demonstrate that LPS activates, whereas GlcN suppresses, basal activities of transcription through the regulation of RNAPII O-GlcNAcylation and DNA binding.

We investigated the regulatory effect of glucosamine (GlcN) for the production of nitric oxide (NO) and expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) under various glucose conditions in macrophage cells. At normal glucose concentrations, GlcN dose dependently increased LPS-stimulated production of NO/iNOS. However, GlcN suppressed NO/iNOS production under high glucose culture conditions. Moreover, GlcN suppressed LPS-induced up-regulation of COX-2, IL-6, and TNF-α mRNAs under 25 mm glucose conditions yet did not inhibit up-regulation under 5 mm glucose conditions. Glucose itself dose dependently increased LPS-induced iNOS expression. LPS-induced MAPK and IκB-α phosphorylation did not significantly differ at normal and high glucose conditions. The activity of LPS-induced nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and DNA binding of c-Rel to the iNOS promoter were inhibited under high glucose conditions in comparison with no significant changes under normal glucose conditions. In addition, we found that the LPS-induced increase in O-GlcNAcylation as well as DNA binding of c-Rel to the iNOS promoter were further increased by GlcN under normal glucose conditions. However, both O-GlcNAcylation and DNA binding of c-Rel decreased under high glucose conditions. The NF-κB inhibitor, pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate, inhibited LPS-induced iNOS expression under high glucose conditions but it did not influence iNOS induction under normal glucose conditions. In addition, pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate inhibited NF-κB DNA binding and c-Rel O-GlcNAcylation only under high glucose conditions. By blocking transcription with actinomycin D, we found that stability of LPS-induced iNOS mRNA was increased by GlcN under normal glucose conditions. These results suggest that GlcN regulates inflammation by sensing energy states of normal and fuel excess.

In this study, we investigated the effect of tunicamycin on the production of pro-inflammatory molecules in RAW264.7 macrophage cells in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists. Tunicamycin caused a reduction in LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) production and expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). In contrast, other ER stress-inducing chemicals, such as A23187 and thapsigargin (TG), increased LPS-induced COX-2 expression and had no effect on LPS-induced iNOS, TNF-α or IL-1β expression. Furthermore, the inhibitory effect of tunicamycin on LPS-induced inflammation was not influenced by salubrinal, an ER stress inhibitor, suggesting that the anti-inflammatory effect of tunicamycin is independent of ER stress. Tunicamycin also inhibited the expression of inflammatory molecule mRNAs induced by stimulation of TLR2 (with lipoteichoic acid) or TLR3 (with polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid), which do not require myeloid differentiation protein-2 (MD2) for their activation. Moreover, inhibition of LPS-induced iNOS expression was not inhibited by castanospermine, another N-glycosylation inhibitor, suggesting that the inhibitory effect of tunicamycin on LPS-induced iNOS induction is likely independent of MD2 N-glycosylation. Tunicamycin inhibited nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) activity by suppressing LPS-induced nuclear translocation of p50 and subsequent DNA binding of p50 and p65 to the NF-κB site of the iNOS promoter. Tunicamycin also inhibited the transcriptional activity of a cAMP-response element (CRE) reporter, possibly by inhibiting c-Jun activation. Therefore, we conclude that tunicamycin represses TLR-induced inflammation through suppression of NF-κB and CRE activity via a mechanism that is independent of ER-stress and N-glycosylation.

SA51, a medium potency inhibitor of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B), was identified to be a potent inhibitor of kinase (). Consistent with this, SA51 prevented lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced breakdown of in macrophages. The effects of SA51 in mice were compared with those of structurally related compounds, SA18 and SA32, which were previously reported as inhibitors of both enzymes - less potent against but more potent against PTP1B compared to SA51. SA51 improved glucose tolerance and lipid parameters in mice, consistent with the results reported for mice. In contrast, SA18 and SA32 showed anti-obesity effects without anti-diabetic effects. Collectively, the effects of SA51 could be due largely to the inhibition of , whereas SA18 and SA32 may be more likely to inhibit PTP1B, consistent with their relative in vitro inhibitory effects.

Background and Purpose Previously, we demonstrated that glucosamine (GlcN) exerts a suppressive effect on LPS-induced inducible NOS (iNOS) through the inhibition of NF-κB activation in BV2 mouse microglial cells. The purpose of the present study was to examine the mechanisms by which GlcN inhibits NF-κB activation. Experimental Approach BV2 cells were stimulated with LPS with or without GlcN. NF-κB/c-Rel activities were studied by EMSA, nuclear translocation, reporter assay or chromatin immunoprecipitation. Wheat germ agglutinin precipitation or galactosyltransferase assay were used to measure O-linked N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) modification (O-GlcNAcylation) of c-Rel. Protein-protein interactions were examined by co-immunoprecipitation. Key Results LPS stimulated the activation of c-Rel, increased the O-GlcNAcylation of c-Rel and enhanced the binding of c-Rel to the NF-κB site in the iNOS promoter; GlcN attenuated these effects of LPS. O-GlcNAcylation of both nuclear and cytosolic forms of c-Rel was increased by LPS and reduced by GlcN. LPS increased the interaction of c-Rel with O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) and p50/p105, and GlcN suppressed these interactions. Knockdown of OGT reduced the c-Rel O-GlcNAcylation and c-Rel–p50 interaction in response to LPS, but did not affect either the binding of c-Rel to the iNOS promoter or the transcriptional activity of c-Rel. Conclusions and Implications In BV2 microglial cells, the anti-inflammatory effect of GlcN is mediated by prevention of the prolonged activation of transcription factors, c-Rel and NF-κB. Further clarification of the mechanism by which GlcN exerts this effect will facilitate the development of pharmacological strategies for preventing excessive NO formation when targeting inflammatory diseases of the periphery or CNS.

Aim of study Taglisodog-eum ( , Tuo Li Xiao Du Yin), a standardized herbal formula, has been widely used to modulate diverse carbuncles in oriental medicine. However, it is still unclear whether Taglisodog-eum (TSE) can exert a beneficial role in dermatological disease. In this study, we examined the effect of topical application of TSE on experimental atopic dermatitis (AD) and elucidated its action mechanism. Materials and methods To test the effect of TSE treatment on IgE production in vitro, U266B1 cells and primary CD19+ B cells isolated from AD-induced mice were treated with TSE under LPS/IL-4 stimulation and then IgE level in the culture supernatant was measured by ELISA. To evaluate the effect of TSE treatment on the production of AD related pathogenic cytokines, CD4+ T cells isolated from AD-induced mice were treated with TSE under PMA/ionomycin stimulation, then the level of cytokine expression was analyzed by quantitative RT-PCR and ELISA. The effects of TSE on the NFκB promoter activity in T cells and on the expression level of Aicda (activation-induced cytidine deaminase) in B cells were examined. To further examine the in vivo efficacy of TSE on AD progression, TSE was topically applied to ears of mice with atopic dermatitis induced by painting of DNCB and house dust mite extract. AD Progression was estimated by following criteria: (a) ear thickness, clinical score, (b) serum total IgE and mite specific IgE level by ELISA, (c) histological examination of ear tissue by H&E staining and (d) cytokine profile of total ear cells and draining lymph node CD4+ T cells by quantitative real time PCR and ELISA. Results Treatment of TSE to the U266B1 cell line and primary CD19+ B cells isolated from AD-induced mice inhibited IgE production. Treatment of TSE down-regulated the expression of several cytokines (IL-4, IL-10, IL-13, IL-17, TNF-α and IFN-γ) in CD4+ T cells isolated from AD-induced mice. Topical application of TSE on the ears of AD-induced mice decreased the severity and progression of disease by reducing ear thickness, clinical scores including dryness, edema. TSE treatment reduced the infiltration of lymphocytes to the inflamed site analyzed by histological evaluation. TSE treatment also decreased serum IgE level and expression of AD-associated pathogenic cytokines (IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13) in total ear cells and dLN CD4+ T cells by inhibiting the translocation of NFκB into nucleus. Conclusions Our study indicates that protective effect of Taglisodog-eum (TSE) in experimental atopic dermatitis is mediated by inhibiting IgE production and the levels of Th2 type cytokines, suggesting the beneficial effect of TSE on modulating atopic dermatitis.

Plectin and microtubule actin cross-linking factor 1 (MACF1) are architectural proteins that contribute to the function of skeletal muscle as generators of mechanical force. However, the influence of insulin- like growth factor-I (IGF-I), a master regulator of skeletal muscle cells, on plectin and MACF1 in skeletal muscle cells has not been demonstrated. The effect of IGF-I on plectin and MACF1 gene expression was investigated by treating differentiated C2C12 murine skeletal muscle cells with 20 ng/ml of IGF-I at different time points. The IGF-I treatment increased plectin protein expression in a dose-dependent manner. The mRNA level of plectin was measured by real-time quantitative PCR to determine if plectin induction was regulated pretranslationally. IGF-I treatment resulted in a very rapid induction of plectin mRNA transcript in C2C12 myotubes. Plectin mRNA increased by 140 and 180% after 24 and 48 hours of IGF-I treatment, respectively, and returned to the control level after 72 hours of IGF-I treatment. MACF1 mRNA increased 86 and 90% after 24 and 48 hours of IGF-I treat-ment, respectively, and returned to the control level after 72 hours of IGF-I treatment. These results suggested that the plectin gene is regulated pretranslationally by IGF-I in skeletal muscle cells. In conclusion, IGF-I induces a rapid transcriptional modification of the plectin and MACF1 genes in C2C12 skeletal muscle cells and has modulating effects on a cytolinker protein as well as on contractile proteins.

We aimed to elucidate the effect of soluble factors secreted by glioma on microglial activation. Conditioned medium (CM) from glioma cells, CRT-MG and C6, significantly induced nitric oxide (NO) production and stimulated the mRNA expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS), interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) in BV2 cells. Glioma CM stimulated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation, and a p38 MAPK inhibitor, SB203580, suppressed CM-induced NO production in BV2 cells. In addition, CM stimulated nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) DNA binding and transcriptional activity, which was repressed by SB203580. Gliomas displayed higher mRNA expression and release of TNF-α and IL-1β than primary astrocyte cells. Neutralization of TNF-α and IL-1β in C6-CM using a neutralizing antibody inhibited NO/iNOS expression in BV-2 cells. These results indicate potential contribution of diffusible tumor-derived factors to regulate microglial activation and subsequent tumor microenvironment.

Allergic contact hypersensitivity (CHS) is an inflammatory skin disease mediated by allergen specific T cells. In this study, we investigated the role of transcription factor NFAT1 in the pathogenesis of contact hypersensitivity. NFAT1 knock out (KO) mice spontaneously developed CHS-like skin inflammation in old age. Healthy young NFAT1 KO mice displayed enhanced susceptibility to hapten-induced CHS. Both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from NFAT1 KO mice displayed hyper-activated properties and produced significantly enhanced levels of inflammatory T helper 1(Th1)/Th17 type cytokines. NFAT1 KO T cells were more resistant to activation induced cell death (AICD) and regulatory T cells derived from these mice showed a partial defect in their suppressor activity. NFAT1 KO T cells displayed a reduced expression of apoptosis associated BCL-2/BH3 family members. Ectopic expression of NFAT1 restored the AICD defect in NFAT1 KO T cells and increased AICD in normal T cells. Recipient Rag2−/− mice transferred with NFAT1 KO T cells showed more severe CHS sensitivity due to a defect in activation induced hapten-reactive T cell apoptosis. Collectively, our results suggest the NFAT1 plays a pivotal role as a genetic switch in CD4+/CD8+ T cell tolerance by regulating AICD process in the T cell mediated skin inflammation.

IL-9 regulates diverse inflammatory immune responses. Although the functional importance of IL-9 has been investigated in various pathophysiological conditions, molecular mechanisms by which TCR stimulation induced IL-9 gene expression are still unclear. In this study, we investigated the functional importance of the NFAT1 and NF-κB (p65) in IL-9 gene transcription in CD4(+) T cells. In vivo binding of NFAT1 and NF-κB (p65) to the IL-9 promoter was observed. NFAT1 binding induced a transcriptionally active chromatin configuration at the IL-9 promoter locus, whereas NF-κB (p65) binding transactivated the IL-9 promoter. Mouse deficient in NFAT1 shows a significant down-regulation of IL-9 expression that resulted from an inaccessible chromatin configuration at the IL-9 promoter. In parallel, knockdown of NF-κB (p65) also resulted in reduced IL-9 expression. In this process, NFAT1 plays a pivotal role as a core protein that creates an accessible platform for the assembly of transcription activators. The presence of NFAT1 correlates with recruitment of NF-κB (p65), p300, and active histone markers on the IL-9 promoter, resulting in a transcriptionally competent promoter. NFAT1 deficiency significantly reduced the recruitment of the above activation complex to the IL-9 promoter. In summary, our data suggest that functional cooperation of NFAT1 and NF-κB synergistically enhances IL-9 transcription in CD4(+) T cells.

IL-10 is a multifunctional cytokine that plays a crucial role in immunity and tolerance. IL-10 is produced by diverse immune cell types, including B cells and subsets of T cells. Although Th1 produce IL-10, their expression levels are much lower than Th2 cells under conventional stimulation conditions. The potential role of E26 transformation-specific 1 (Ets-1) transcription factor as a negative regulator for Il10 gene expression in CD4+ T cells has been implicated previously. In this study, we investigated the underlying mechanism of Ets-1–mediated Il10 gene repression in Th1 cells. Compared with wild type Th1 cells, Ets-1 knockout Th1 cells expressed a significantly higher level of IL-10, which is comparable with that of wild type Th2 cells. Upregulation of IL-10 expression in Ets-1 knockout Th1 cells was accompanied by enhanced chromatin accessibility and increased recruitment of histone H3 acetylation at the Il10 regulatory regions. Reciprocally, Ets-1 deficiency significantly decreased histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) enrichment at the Il10 regulatory regions. Treatment with trichostatin A, an inhibitor of HDAC family, significantly increased Il10 gene expression by increasing histone H3 acetylation recruitment. We further demonstrated a physical interaction between Ets-1 and HDAC1. Coexpression of Ets-1 with HDAC1 synergistically repressed IL-10 transcription activity. In summary, our data suggest that an interaction of Ets-1 with HDAC1 represses the Il10 gene expression in Th1 cells.

DA-9601 (Stillen™) is a novel anti-peptic formulation prepared from the ethanol extracts of Artemisia asiatica possessing anti-oxidative, anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory activities. However, their effect on atopic dermatitis (AD) has not been studied yet. In this study, we report that topical application of DA-9601 suppressed house dust mite extract (Dermatophagoides farinae extract, DFE) and 2, 4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-induced AD-like skin lesions in BALB/c mice model. We established atopic dermatitis model in BALB/c mice by repeated local exposure of DFE/DNCB to the ears. Repeated alternative treatment of DFE/DNCB caused AD-like lesions. DA-9601 reduced AD-like skin lesions based on ear thickness and histopathological analysis, and serum IgE levels. DA-9601 inhibited mast cell infiltration into the ear and elevation of serum histamine in AD model. In addition, DA-9601 suppressed DFE/DNCB-induced expression of IL-4, IL-13, IL-31, and TNF-α in the ears. Taken together, our results showed that topical application of DA-9601 exerts beneficial effects in animal model of AD, suggesting that DA-9601 might be a candidate for the treatment of AD.

Benzylidene-2,4-thiazolidinedione derivatives with substitutions at both the ortho and para-positions of the phenyl group were synthesized as PTP1B inhibitors with IC(50) values in a low micromolar range. Compound 18l, the lowest, bore an IC(50) of 1.3 μM. In a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) promoter reporter gene assay, 18l was found to activate the transcription of the reporter gene with potencies comparable to those of troglitazone, rosiglitazone, and pioglitazone. In vivo efficacy of 18l as an anti-obesity and hypoglycemic agent was evaluated in a mouse model system. Compound 18l significantly suppressed weight gain and significantly improved blood parameters such as TG, total cholesterol and NEFA without overt toxic effects.

We investigated the neuroprotective effect of glucosamine (GlcN) in a rat middle cerebral artery occlusion model. At the highest dose used, intraperitoneal GlcN reduced infarct volume to 14.3% ± 7.4% that of untreated controls and afforded a reduction in motor impairment and neurological deficits. Neuroprotective effects were not reproduced by other amine sugars or acetylated-GlcN, and GlcN suppressed postischemic microglial activation. Moreover, GlcN suppressed lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced upregulation of proinflammatory mediators both in vivo and in culture systems using microglial or macrophage cells. The anti-inflammatory effects of GlcN were mainly attributable to its ability to inhibit nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB) activation. GlcN inhibited LPS-induced nuclear translocation and DNA binding of p65 to both NF-κB consensus sequence and NF-κB binding sequence of inducible nitric oxide synthase promoter. In addition, we found that GlcN strongly repressed p65 transactivation in BV2 cells using Gal4-p65 chimeras system. P65 displayed increased O-GlcNAcylation in response to LPS; this effect was also reversed by GlcN. The LPS-induced increase in p65 O-GlcNAcylation was paralleled by an increase in interaction with O-GlcNAc transferase, which was reversed by GlcN. Finally, our results suggest that GlcN or its derivatives may serve as novel neuroprotective or anti-inflammatory agents.

Antartin (1), a new zizaane-type sesquiterpene, was isolated from Streptomyces sp. SCO736. The chemical structure of 1 was assigned from the interpretation of 1D and 2D NMR in addition to mass spectrometric data. The relative stereochemistry of 1 was determined by analysis of NOE data, while the absolute stereochemistry was decided based on a comparison of experimental and calculated electronic circular dichroism (ECD) spectra. Antartin (1) showed cytotoxicity against A549, H1299, and U87 cancer cell lines by causing cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase.

To evaluate immunomodulators from herbal medicines that affect the expression of IL-10 and TNF-α, we developed a cell-based high throughput screening system and tested 17 kinds of herbal medicine. We found that extracts of Coptidis Rhizoma can be used to stimulate TNF-α and IL-10 expression.

Microglia contributes significantly to brain tumor mass, particularly in astrocytic gliomas. Here, we examine the cytotoxic effects of soluble components secreted from microglia culture on glioma cells. Microglia conditioned culture medium (MCM) actively stimulated apoptotic death of glioma cells, and the effects of MCM prepared from LPS- or IFN-gamma-activated microglia were more pronounced. The cytotoxic effects were glioma-specific in that primary cultured rat astrocytes were not affected by MCM. A donor of peroxynitrite induced glioma-specific cell death. In addition, NO synthase inhibitor suppressed glioma cell death induced by activated MCM, indicating that NO is one of the key molecules responsible for glioma cytotoxicity mediated by activated MCM. However, since unstimulated resting microglia produces low or very limited level of NO, MCM may contain other critical molecule(s) that induce glioma apoptosis. To identify the proteins secreted in MCM, proteomic analysis was performed on control or activated medium. Among over 200 protein spots detected by Coomassie blue staining, we identified 26 constitutive and 28 LPS- or IFN-gamma-regulated MCM proteins. Several cathepsin proteases were markedly expressed, which were reduced upon activation. In particular, suppression of cathepsin B by the chemical inhibitors significantly reversed MCM-induced glioma cell death, implying a critical role of this protease in cytotoxicity. Our findings provide evidence on the functional implications of specific microglial-secreted proteins in glioma cytotoxicity, as well as a basis to develop a proteomic databank of both basal and activation-related proteins in microglia.