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Attosecond science is well developed for atoms and promising results have been obtained for molecules and solids. Here, we review the first steps in developing attosecond time-resolved measurements in liquids. These advances provide access to time-domain studies of electronic dynamics in the natural environment of chemical reactions and biological processes. We concentrate on two techniques that are representative of the two main branches of attosecond science: pump-probe measurements using attosecond pulses and high-harmonic spectroscopy (HHS). In the first part, we discuss attosecond photoelectron spectroscopy with cylindrical microjets and its application to measure time delays between liquid and gaseous water. We present the experimental techniques, the new data-analysis methods and the experimental results. We describe in detail the conceptual and theoretical framework required to fully describe attosecond chronoscopy in liquids at a quantum-mechanical level. This includes photoionization delays, scattering delays, as well as a coherent description of electron transport and (laser-assisted) photoemission and scattering. As a consequence, we show that attosecond chronoscopy of liquids is, in general, sensitive to both types of delays, as well as the electron mean-free paths. Through detailed modeling, involving state-of-the-art quantum scattering and Monte-Carlo trajectory methods, we show that the photoionization delays dominate in attosecond chronoscopy of liquid water at photon energies of 20-30 eV. This conclusion is supported by a near-quantitative agreement between experiment and theory. In the second part, we introduce HHS of liquids based on flat microjets. These results represent the first observation of high-harmonic generation (HHG) in liquids extending well beyond the visible into the extreme-ultraviolet regime., Comment: Chapter submitted as a contribution to the Book "Ultrafast electronic and structural dynamics" edited by Prof. Kiyoshi Ueda

We have introduced and developed new repeat finding algorithm Global Repeat Map (GRM). This method enables for the first time direct mapping of symbolic DNA sequence into frequency domain, which is very robust and enables identification of repeats and higher order repeats with very long and sizeably mutated repeat copies, which were not found by previously known methods. It is well known that higher primates share nearly 98% of human DNA in genes, but given the substantial number of neutral mutations, only a small subset of the observed gene differences is likely to be responsible for the key phenotypic changes. It was proposed that phenotypic differences are mainly caused by regulatory changes in gene expression. In order to contribute to insight into mechanism of gene expression, we study and compare tandems, higher order repeats (HORs) and regularly dispersed repeats in human and other primates genome, using robust Global Repeat Map (GRM) algorithm. We show that substantial human-primates differences are concentrated in large repeat structures, and occur on two different levels: from nucleotide substitutions to large-scale structural alteration of the genome. We found in chromosome Y that human-chimpanzee nucleotide substitution divergence within large repeat structures, is at level as much as ~ 70%. Smeared over the whole chromosome Y sequenced assembly this gives ~14% human-chimpanzee divergence. This is significantly higher estimate of divergence between human and chimpanzee than previous estimates. At a structural difference level, we found in human genome rapid evolution of structural higher periodicity organization, referred as Human Accelerated HOR Regions (HAHORs). We hypothesize on possible importance of human accelerated HOR pattern as components in gene expression multi-layered regulatory network.