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Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) in Pakistan is the backbone of agriculture in the country. The IBIS provides irrigation support to agricultural lands across the country; however, hydraulic efficiency of the water conveyance system is impacted due to seepage losses. The lining of irrigation channels is considered a potential solution for improving hydraulic efficiency. Therefore, this study explores the impact of canal lining on the hydraulic efficiency of the canals in the Punjab province of Pakistan. Overall, 14 channels/distributaries/minors (total length 226 km) were monitored in terms of hydraulic performance in different irrigation zones. Hydraulic, geometrical, and socioeconomic parameters of channel/distributaries/minors including roughness coefficient, sediments, flow velocity, wetted parameter, breaches, theft cases, bed, side slope, water surface profile, hydraulic radius, crop yield, and vegetation growth area have been experimentally observed. Obtained results have been compared with the design and pre-lining data. Ten seepage tests using the inflow -outflow method and eight seepage tests using the ponding method were conducted to estimate seepage losses. Results indicate that almost all the parameters varied from the design values. A detailed comparison of the socioeconomic parameters has been carried out. Results from seepage tests show an approximately 78% reduction in losses.

Groundwater is a precious gift of nature and is being used for drinking, agricultural, industrial, livestock. In Punjab province of Pakistan groundwater is contributing about fifty percent towards irrigation water requirements where a large aquifer underlying the Indus River Basin (IRB) is being depleted rapidly. In the present research a methodology/criterion has been developed and applied for identification of the suitable sites for recharging the aquifer artificially in the Punjab province in Pakistan. Major activities carried out include the installation of exploratory boreholes, collection and analysis of soil and water samples, determination of aquifer parameter (hydraulic conductivity) in laboratory. Other field observations include observation of groundwater levels, land availability, water availability, and physiographic features. On the basis of field surveys and laboratory investigations, criteria for identification of potential sites for artificial recharge to augment the groundwater reservoir has been developed. Keeping in view the parameters adopted in the criteria, thirteen potential sites in the critical areas have been identified for artificial recharge to replenish the depleting groundwater levels. This research provides guidelines for the decision-makers for future investment for sustainable groundwater management.

BACKGROUND Salinity constrains agricultural sustainability and crops differ in their respond. We tested the hypothesis that contrasting responses in canopy and stomatal traits to salinity will cause convergence of water-use for okra and tomato. RESULTS Stomata were found almost exclusively (>90%) on the lower leaf surface of tomato, but okra produced ~30% of stomata on the upper leaf surface. While salinity reduced the magnitudes of canopy and stomata traits in tomato, stomata traits were either unaffected or enhanced in okra. Salinity reduced the rates and duration of stomatal conductance (gs ) in both crops, more severely in tomato in which gs was restricted to early mornings in contrast to its bell-shape trend in okra. The superiority of okra in its stomata traits was compensated by the larger plant canopies in tomato resulting in both daytime canopy transpiration and total plant water-use were within 17% and 28%, respectively, of each other for the two crops. A tight stomatal control of transpiration that minimised use of water and its uptake from the soil conferred a superior salinity tolerance on tomato over okra. In both crops, D was inversely correlated with A, while water-use was positively correlated with plant leaf area, in addition to D and A in tomato; gs was also correlated with stomata area index in tomato. CONCLUSIONS Differences in water-use for both crops were relatively narrow notwithstanding the several-fold differences in their canopy and stomata traits. Under saline conditions, irrigation intervals should be long for tomato but short for okra. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

In a water-scarce country such as Pakistan, rainfall is the third-largest source of freshwater. In most of the urban cities of the country, rainwater is mixed with sewerage and is rendered useless for managed aquifer recharge purposes. Therefore, this study investigates the rainfall potential for managed aquifer recharge in Lahore (Pakistan). The present research was designed and conducted by the Irrigation Research Institute (IRI). Three different sites were selected for rainwater sample collection across the study area (Lahore), ranging from urban to rural areas. The rainwater samples were collected and divided into three categories (direct capture, rooftop runoff, street runoff). For longer rainfall events, the effect of time on the quality of the collected rainwater samples was also studied. Spatiotemporal trends of turbidity, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, carbonates, bicarbonates, chloride, calcium, magnesium, and hardness in the collected rainwater samples were investigated. In terms of TDS, results indicated that directly captured rainwater is most suitable for managed aquifer recharge (TDS < 50 ppm), followed by rooftop runoff (TDS < 100 ppm). In addition, the quality of rainwater samples collected at the rural site was comparatively better. Moreover, the quality of rainwater samples improved after the initial ten minutes. All in all, this study concludes that direct capture of rainwater is the most suitable option for managed aquifer recharge.

Despite growing recognition of solutions to water scarcity challenges, decision-makers across the world continue to face barriers to effective implementation of water planning, governance and management. This is evident in the cases of Lahore and Karachi in the Indus Basin in Pakistan and illustrated through the experiences of the provincial government departments and utilities. Water scarcity and associated challenges are continuing to impose significant costs on these cities, which continue to grow as water availability further declines, demand increases, water quality deteriorates, and infrastructure degrades. A team of Australian water experts was commissioned by the Australian Water Partnership to diagnose urban water challenges and identify priority actions for improved water security, in collaboration with Pakistani partners. This paper presents the outcomes of that work. This includes a synthesis of the published literature and data on the geographical, climatic, and water scarcity contexts of both Karachi and Lahore. It then identifies responses to water insecurity that have been considered or implemented in the past and the barriers that have inhibited the effectiveness of these efforts. Finally, it presents actions within five priority action areas that Pakistani stakeholders have identified as being most practical and impactful for improving water security outcomes.

Salinity constrains agricultural sustainability and crops differ in their response. We tested the hypothesis that contrasting responses in canopy and stomatal traits to salinity will cause convergence of water-use in okra and tomato.Stomata were found almost exclusively (90%) on the lower leaf surface of tomato, but okra produced ~30% of stomata on the upper leaf surface. While salinity reduced the magnitudes of canopy and stomata traits in tomato, stomata traits were either unaffected or enhanced in okra. Salinity reduced the rates and duration of stomatal conductance (gDifferences in water-use for both crops were relatively narrow, despite the several-fold differences in their canopy and stomata traits. Under saline conditions, irrigation intervals should be long for tomato but short for okra. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

This chapter explores the applicability of the Water-Energy-Food nexus framework for the Indus Basin of Pakistan. It introduces the importance of linking water, energy, and food resources, and current sectoral gaps in Pakistan. To better understand these gaps and linkages, the chapter shows that the water-energy-food nexus is not an entirely new idea or practice in the Indus Basin. Although the terminology is new, integration of various sorts was common up to the mid-nineteenth century. The modern sectoral breaks arose with the development of large-scale colonial canal irrigation, administered under its own spatial jurisdictions, and further institutional gaps arose with the growth of electric power and fossil fuel programs. The chapter then lays out a framework for understanding the linkages among these sectors as a nexus that entails a broad range of perspectives, levels, and scales. This framework is used to characterise the problems associated with sectoral fragmentation, and then to identify ways forward in analytic, governance, and societal terms.

The over-extraction of groundwater from thin fresh groundwater lenses is a threat to the livelihood of farmers in the Lower Indus Basin (LIB). It is essential to monitor and regulate this pumping to sustain fresh groundwater lenses. In this study, we applied a modelling approach in combination with geostatistical analysis to identify the critical locations to monitor the groundwater levels for sustaining fresh groundwater in the LIB. Our approach included four steps: (i) simulating temporal heads using a calibrated hydrogeological model, (ii) sampling monitoring locations using a hexagonal pattern of sampling, (iii) applying principal component analysis (PCA) of the temporal head observations, and selecting high scoring locations from the PCA, and (iv) minimizing the observation points to represent the water level contours. The calibrated model was able to replicate the hydro-dynamic behavior of the study area, with a root mean square of 0.95 and an absolute residual mean of 0.74 m. The hexagonal pattern of spatial sampling resulted in a 195 point network, but PCA reduced this network to 135 points and contour classification reduced it even further to 59 points. The 195, 135, and 59 point networks represented the water levels with average standard errors of 0.098, 0.318, and 0.610 m, respectively. Long-term simulations with increased pumping showed that the water levels would best be assessed by 195 monitoring points, although 135 and 59 points would represent the depleting area but would not capture the water logging area.