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Urbanization is increasing in arid and semi-arid regions of the world and impacting native ecosystems through disturbance, climatic modification, and pollution deposition. Arid ecosystems often exhibit a mosaic of shrub/tree canopy covered and non-canopy covered patches that differ in elemental pools and processes. We measured belowground ecosystem attributes and processes in native Larrea tridentata {(D.C.) Cov} dominated communities along an urban–rural gradient in Phoenix, Arizona. Organic carbon (C), total nitrogen (N), and nitrate levels were significantly greater in the urban locations, but soil respiration rates (Rs) were higher at the rural sites. Urban sites exhibited no difference in Rs and N between the canopy and interplant patches while both the rural and suburban sites had significantly greater N and higher Rs under the canopy than in the interplant spaces. Soil respiration rates at the urban locations were not correlated with either soil moisture or temperature individually. These data suggest that urbanization has caused a disconnect of ecological pattern and processes in L. tridentata ecosystems within the urban setting such that water and N limitations no longer explain expected spatial Rs patterns, or elemental pools.

Litterfall and fine root production were measured for three years as part of a carbon balance study of three forest stands in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. A young second-growth Douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco] stand, a second-growth Douglas-fir with red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) stand, and an old-growth (∼550 years) Douglas-fir stand were monitored for inputs of carbon and nitrogen into the soil from litterfall and fine root production, as well as changes in soil C and N. Fine root production and soil nutrient changes were measured through the use of soil ingrowth bags containing homogenized soil from the respective stands. Litterfall biomass was greatest in the Douglas-fir-alder stand (527 g m−2 yr−1) that annually returned nearly three times the amount of N as the other stands. Mean residence time for forest floor material was also shortest at this site averaging 4.6 years and 5.5 years for C an N, respectively. Fine root production in the upper 20 cm ranged from 584 g m−2 in the N rich Douglas-fir-alder stand to 836 g m−2 in the old-growth stand. Fine root production (down to one meter) was always greater than litterfall with a below:above ratio ranging from 3.73 for the young Douglas-fir stand to 1.62 for the Douglas-fir-alder stand. The below:above N ratios for all three stands closely approximate those for biomass. Soil changes in both C and N differed by site, but the soil C changes in the old-growth stand mirrored those obtained in an ongoing CO2 flux study. Results from the soil ingrowth bags strongly suggest that this method provides a simple, but sufficient device for measuring potential fine root biomass production as well as soil chemical changes.

Nitrogen deposition is increasing worldwide from anthropogenic sources and encroaching upon previously N limited ecosystems. Recent literature reports increases in inorganic N deposition in Pacific Northwest forests of the United States due to expanding urbanization. We examined the contributions of atmospheric deposition of inorganic N to old-growth and second-growth Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) forests in the Cascade Mountains of southern Washington State. We used ion exchange resin lysimeters (IERs) to measure throughfall and compared it to data from a nearby atmospheric deposition recording station. Observed differences led us to install IERs above and throughout the canopy of an old- and second-growth forest stand at the Wind River Canopy Crane Research Facility. Total NH4-N and NO3-N deposition was 4.06 and 2.06 kg/ha, respectively, with NH4-N inputs varying seasonally. Canopy interception in the first 5 m of canopy was >80% of NO3-N deposition during the winter months, with negative net canopy exchange (NCE) accounting for nearly 90% of NO3-N input (uptake). NCE for NH4-N during the winter months was negligible. During the summer months, both NH4-N and NO3-N were taken up within the canopy. Contrary to the winter period, nearly all NH4-N entering the canopy was retained. Although the pattern of canopy interception varied according to canopy architecture and age of stand, all species were extremely efficient in reducing the input of inorganic N to the forest floor. Greater deposition in these stands as compared to the nearby NADP site was attributed to higher precipitation. Needle concentrations of N and δ15N showed no differences throughout the canopy profile, in contrast to both C and δ13C that exhibited significant increases from top to the lower levels. Differences in concentrations of C, δ13C, N and δ15N were noted among the old-growth species.

Soil respiration in semiarid ecosystems responds positively to temperature, but temperature is just one of many factors controlling soil respiration. Soil moisture can have an overriding influence, particularly during the dry/warm portions of the year. The purpose of this project was to evaluate the influence of soil moisture on the relationship between temperature and soil respiration. Soil samples collected from a range of sites arrayed across a climatic gradient were incubated under varying temperature and moisture conditions. Additionally, we evaluated the impact of substrate quality on short-term soil respiration responses by carrying out substrate-induced respiration assessments for each soil at nine different temperatures. Within all soil moisture regimes, respiration rates always increased with increase in temperature. For a given temperature, soil respiration increased by half (on average) across moisture regimes; Q10 values declined with soil moisture from 3.2 (at −0.03 MPa) to 2.1 (−1.5 MPa). In summary, soil respiration was generally directly related to temperature, but responses were ameliorated with decrease in soil moisture.

Forest floor material and soil organic matter may act as both a source and a sink in global CO2 cycles. Thus, the ecosystem processes controlling these pools are central to understanding the transfers of carbon (C) between the atmosphere and terrestrial systems. To examine these ecosystem processes, the effect of stand age on temporal carbon source-sink relationships was examined in 20-year-old, 40-year-old and old-growth stands of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) in the Cascade Mountains of south-central Washington State. Belowground C and nitrogen (N) storage and soil respiration were measured. In addition, nylon mesh bags containing homogenized soils from each site were buried at the respective sites to quantify root ingrowth and potential C sequestration and loss. The sites supporting the 20- and 40-year-old stands had soil C stores reflecting the C contributions from logging residue, coarse woody debris and stumps left after harvest. Because the N-fixer red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) comprised 33% of the 40-year-old stand, this site had significantly greater concentrations and pools of N in the forest floor than sites without red alder. This N-rich site had consistently lower soil CO2 efflux rates during the growing season than the sites supporting the 20-year-old and old-growth stands. Estimated annual soil C efflux was 1367, 883 and 1194 g m-2 for the sites supporting the 20-, 40- and old-growth stands, respectively. These values are higher than previously reported values. Root ingrowth was significantly less in the 40-year-old stand than in the 20-year-old stand, and both young stands showed markedly less fine root growth than the old-growth stand. At the sites supporting the young stands, C and N were lost from the soil bags, whereas there was an increase in C and N in the soil bags at the site supporting the old-growth stand. The fine root growth and soil respiration data support the hypothesis that belowground C allocation decreases with increasing fertility. Quantification of the source-sink relationship of soil C at the three stands based on litterfall, relative root ingrowth and soil respiration measurements was compromised because of significant CO2 flux from decaying organic matter in the young stands.

We used multiple resolutions of remotely sensed data to explore the relationship between grain size and landscape pattern. Holding extent constant, we aggregated fine grained and coarse grained data to provide a continuum of grain sizes ranging from 5 m to 30 m on a side. Landscape metrics were calculated for each image and varied widely between grain sizes. Finer grained images appeared to be more fragmented and complex than coarser grained images for the same landscape. Most metrics varied smoothly as a function of grain size and were fitted to nonlinear models. Results showed that the models failed to accurately predict the metrics for the second landscape, although the metrics did display similar scaling patterns as in the first image. Further research using additional images of landscapes and a greater range of grain sizes is necessary to determine whether general scaling laws can be determined.

The process of decomposition is controlled by both biotic and abiotic factors. While it has been widely hypothesized that litter quality and climatic conditions regulate decomposition, the relative importance of these factors appears to vary across biomes. This study examines the decomposition of native plant litter along an elevational gradient in northern Arizona to determine the influence of litter quality and climate on the rate of decomposition in semiarid communities. A litter-bag experiment was performed using needle/leaf litter from Pinus ponderosa, Pinus edulis, Juniperus monosperma, Gutierrezia sarothrae, and Bouteloua gracilis. The five litter types are representative of the dominant local vegetation and offer a range of litter qualities. The bags were placed along a gradient, running from Great Basin Desert scrub (1960 m) through a pinyon-juniper woodland (2100 m) and up into a ponderosa pine forest (2280 m). Samples were collected and analyzed over a period of 2 yr. Decomposition was closely correlated with the relative proportion of easily decomposed carbon fractions to recalcitrant fractions for the first year. Litter from G. sarothrae and B. gracilis contained relatively low levels of lignin and high levels of cellulose and carbohydrates, and these litter types exhibited significantly faster rates of decay than the highly lignified pine and juniper litter. The order of the relative rates of decomposition was G. sarothrae k B. gracilis . J. monosperma . P. ponderosa 5 P. edulis. There was no correlation between initial litter nitrogen content and the rate of decomposition, suggesting that decomposition is limited by carbon substrates rather than by nutrient content. Decomposition rates were significantly greater at the upper elevation sites, which were colder and wetter. Evidence strongly suggests that decomposition is limited by moisture in these ecosystems. Warmer temperatures resulting from climate change may not increase the rate of decomposition in the Southwest unless accompanied by increases in available moisture.

Previous research revealed that severe overgrazing and resultant land degradation in the semiarid areas of northern Mexico created significantly higher temperatures in the border area. In this investigation, the temperature and precipitation records from ten ‘homogeneous’ stations are identified in the arid and hyperarid areas of northwest Sonora and are compared with the records from ten stations in southwestern Arizona. Our data show that the Mexican stations are again consistently warmer than the Arizona stations when statistical controls are applied to correct for the linear or non-linear effects of latitude and/or elevation. The stations in Sonora warm at a statistically significantly faster pace than the stations in Arizona during the study period. Furthermore, and consistent with other dryland areas undergoing land degradation, the stations in Sonora reveal a significant increase in the diurnal temperature range during the summer season. Local precipitation reduces the temperature differential between nations on the time scale of days, but enhances the differential on the time scale of months and seasons. Among other findings, the results show how land degradation in dryland areas appears to influence local historical temperature records.

Landscape scale environmental gradients present variable spatial patterns and ecological processes caused by climate, topography and soil characteristics and, as such, offer candidate sites to study environmental change. Data are presented on the spatial pattern of dominant species, biomass, and carbon pools and the temporal pattern of fluxes across a transitional zone shifting from Great Basin Desert scrub, up through pinyon–juniper woodlands and into ponderosa pine forest and the ecotones between each vegetation type. The mean annual temperature (MAT) difference across the gradient is approximately 3°C from bottom to top (MAT 8.5–5.5) and annual precipitation averages from 320 to 530 mm/yr, respectively. The stems of the dominant woody vegetation approach a random spatial pattern across the entire gradient, while the canopy cover shows a clustered pattern. The size of the clusters increases with elevation according to available soil moisture which in turn affects available nutrient resources. The total density of woody species declines with increasing soil moisture along the gradient, but total biomass increases. Belowground carbon and nutrient pools change from a heterogenous to a homogenous distribution on either side of the woodlands. Although temperature controls the seasonal patterns of carbon efflux from the soils, soil moisture appears to be the primary driving variable, but response differs underneath the different dominant species. Similarly, decomposition of dominant litter occurs faster at the cooler and more moist sites, but differs within sites due to litter quality of the different species. The spatial pattern of these communities provides information on the direction of future changes. The ecological processes that we documented are not statistically different in the ecotones as compared to the adjoining communities, but are different at sites above the woodland than those below the woodland. We speculate that an increase in MAT will have a major impact on C pools and C sequestering and release processes in these semiarid landscapes. However, the impact will be primarily related to moisture availability rather than direct effects of an increase in temperature.

We compared soils from grazed and pristine pinyon‐juniper ecosystems for the numbers of chemoautotrophic nitrifying bacteria and determined the distribution of vesicular‐arbuscular (VA) mycorrhizae and ectomycorrhizae (EM). Additionally, we report on the presence of allelopathic substances in organic horizons. Ammonium (NH4+)‐oxidizing bacteria were in greater numbers in the interspaces between the trees, ranging from 9.60 × 104 to 2.13 × 105 bacteria‐1 soil, than under canopies, 3.5 × 104 to 4.8 × 104 bacteria‐1 soil. Grazed interspace soils had over twice the number of NH4+oxidizing bacteria than any other location. There were no differences in the numbers of nitrite‐oxidizing bacteria between either vegetative covers or sites. The rate of nitrate production did not correlate with the number of nitrifiers. However, there was a significant correlation (r2 = 0.85) between mineralization coefficients of total nitrogen and the total number of nitrifiers. Fourteen known and ten unknown monoterpenes were foun...

Nara ( Acanthosicyos horridus ) is a dioecious phreatophyte endemic to the Namib Desert. This plant, because of its sand-binding characteristics, forms micro-ecosystems within the dunes. These micro-ecosystems provide both shelter and food for a variety of detritivores, herbivores, omnivores, and carnivores. Nara, a leafless cucurbit, provides a source of water with many of its plant parts containing > 80% water by weight. The new stem tips, flowers, and seeds provide high sources of both nitrogen and phosphorus. The pulp of the melons, besides providing a high source of water, also offers a significant amount of carbohydrates. Considering the nutrient-poor environment nara occurs in, its stoichiometric relationships of C/N and C/P are unusually low.

Ground-based measurements of stores, growth, mortality, litterfall, respiration, and decomposition were conducted in an old-growth forest at Wind River Experimental Forest, Washington, USA. These measurements were used to estimate gross primary production (GPP) and net primary production (NPP); autotrophic respiration (Ra) and heterotrophic (Rh) respiration; and net ecosystem production (NEP). Monte Carlo methods were used to calculate uncertainty (expressed as ± 2 standard deviations of 200–400 calculations). Live carbon (C) stores were 39,800 g C m )2 (34,800– 44,800 g C m )2 ). The store of C in detritus and mineral soil was 22,092 g C m )2 (20,600–23,600 g Cm )2 ), and the total C stores were 61,899 g C m )2 (56,600–67,700 g C m )2 ). Total NPP was 597 g C m )2 y )1 (453 to 741 g C m )2 y )1 ). Ra was 1309 g C m )2 y )1 (845–1773 g C m )2 y )1 ), indicating a GPP of 1906 g C m )2 y )1 (1444–2368 g C

The Wind River old-growth forest, in the southern Cascade Range of Washington State, is a cool (average annual temperature, 8.7°C), moist (average annual precipitation, 2223 mm), 500-year-old Douglas-fir–western hemlock forest of moderate to low productivity at 371-m elevation on a less than 10% slope. There is a seasonal snowpack (November–March), and rain-on-snow and freezing-rain events are common in winter. Local geology is characterized by volcanic rocks and deposits of Micocene/Oligocene Micocene-Oligocene (mixed) Micocene and Quaternary age, as well as intrusive rocks of Miocene age. Soils are medial, mesic, Entic Vitrands that are deep (2–3 m), well drained, loams and silt loams, generally stone free, and derived from volcanic tephra. The vegetation is transitional, between the Western Hemlock Zone and the Pacific Silver Fir Zone, and the understory is dominated by vine maple, salal, and Oregon grape. Stand structural parameters have been measured on a 4-ha plot. There are eight species of conifers, with a stand density of 427 trees ha−1 and basal area of 82.9 m2 ha−1. Dominant conifers include Douglas-fir (35 trees ha−1), western hemlock (224 trees ha−1), Pacific yew (86 trees ha−1), western red cedar (30 trees ha−1), and Pacific silver fir (47 trees ha−1). The average height of Douglas-fir is 52.0 m (tallest tree, 64.6 m), whereas western hemlock averages 19.0 m (tallest tree, 55.7 m). The regional disturbance regime is dominated by high-severity to moderate-severity fire, from which this forest is thought to have originated. There is no evidence that fire has occurred in the forest after establishment. Primary agents of stand disturbance, which act at the individual to small groups of trees scale, are wind, snow loads, and drought, in combination and interacting with root-rot and butt-rot fungi, heart-rot fungi, dwarf mistletoe, and bark beetles. The forest composition is slowly shifting from dominance by Douglas-fir, a shade-intolerant species, to western hemlock, western red cedar, Pacific yew, and Pacific silver fir, all shade-tolerant species. The Wind River old-growth forest fits the regional definition of Douglas-fir “old growth” on western hemlock sites.

Recent research has shown the Phoenix, AZ metropolitan region to be characterized by a CO2 dome that peaks near the urban center. The CO2 levels, 50% greater than the surrounding non-urban areas, have been attributed to anthropogenic sources and the physical geography of the area. We quantified sources of CO2 emissions across the metropolitan region. Anthropogenic CO2 emission data were obtained from a variety of government and NGO sources. Soil CO2 efflux from the dominant land-use types was measured over the year. Humans and automobile activity produced more than 80% input of CO2 into the urban environment. Soil CO2 efflux from the natural desert ecosystems showed minimal emissions during hot and dry periods, but responded rapidly to moisture. Conversely, human maintained vegetation types (e.g. golf courses, lawns, irrigated agriculture) have greater efflux and are both temperature and soil moisture dependent. Landfills exhibited the most consistent rates, but were temperature and moisture independent. We estimate the annual CO2 released from the predominant land-use types in the Phoenix region and present a graphical portrayal of soil CO2 emissions and the total natural and anthropogenic CO2 emissions in the metropolitan region using a GIS-based approach. The results presented here do not mimic the spatial pattern shown in previous studies. Only, with sophisticated mixing models will we be able to address the total effect of urbanization on CO2 levels and the contribution to regional patterns.

Previously grazed pinyon-juniper woodlands in Grand Canyon National Park, northern Arizona, were studied to determine the effects of past and present grazing. The occurrence and biomass of cryptogamic crust were compared for five sites in and around the Park along a continuum from never grazed to recently grazed. All sites were similar in soil characteristics, elevation and overstory dominants. Cryptogamic crust was quantified using visible cover estimates and the chlorophyll a content of the crust as an indicator of biomass. Visible crust cover was reduced almost 80% on grazed (5.2%) as compared to ungrazed (23.3%) sites. Crust biomass, as estimated by chlorophyll a content, was reduced on grazed (3.1 ,tg cm-2) compared to ungrazed (9.9 ,tg cm-2) sites. There were no significant differences in species presence and absence data. Significant correlations existed between cryptogamic crust cover and the composition of the respective vascular plant communities, marked by a reduction of grasses and an increase of bare soil.

Problems of using food chain support as a functional attribute of a wetland are discussed. It is suggested that primary production may not be the metric that best evaluates food chain support. Environmental constructs of the wetland and resultant habitat variables appear to yield more information on life-support functions. A landscape-oriented approach is derived to separate hierarchically the wet-lands into ecological regions and landscape elements. This classification scheme allows for predetermination of environmental constraints and the possible natural limits of wetland food chain support. It is proposed that models derived from spatial location theory be used to determine the movement of animals from wetland patches experiencing impacts on food chain support. Patch size, distance between patches, habitat diversity, and environmental constraints are incorporated in these models.

The potential existing vegetation cover of the United States was determined, using a computer algorithm developed to subtract Conservation Needs Inventory land-use data from Kuechler's Potential Natural Vegetation of the United States. This was done on a county-by-county basis for the 48 conterminous states. The results indicate that 23 of the 106 vegetation types have each been reduced by over 50% by man-induced land uses. In contrast, only 26 types have had 5% or less of their potential area converted to urban, agricultural, pasture, or other miscellaneous uses. Tule marshes showed the greatest destruction, losing 88% of their original area, primarily to agriculture. Bluestem prairie and its transition zone with oak-hickory forest declined by 85% and 77%, respectively, primarily due to agriculture. Over 41 x 106 ha of these two vegetation types have been converted to other uses. The agricultural states of Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana have the least amount of land covered by natural vegetation - 8, 11, and 18%, respectively. Despite the drawbacks of using Kuechler's Potential Natural vegetation of the United States and CNI land-use data, the results give a fairly accurate and startling portrayal of the area occupied by natural vegetation.

Effects of fire on vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were tested using microcosms constructed from soil, litter, and duff collected beneath canopies of pinyon pine, Utah juniper, and in the open space (interspace). Burning was conducted over wet and dry soils. Soil temperatures were monitored continuously throughout the microcosms during burning. Plants grown in soils burned when dry had a lower VAM colonization than soils burned when wet. Juniper soils demonstrated the greatest reduction, over 95%, compared to their respective controls. Plants grown in interspace soils burned when wet were least affected. There was a positive correlation (r2=0.90) between the decrease in VAM colonization and the soil temperature as a result of the fire. Temperature effects, and associated reductions in VAM, were related to amount of litter burned in each microcosm and the moisture content of the soils.

Many of the federal agencies of the United States (e.g. US Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management) are involved in making decisions that alter land-use on a massive scale. Subsequently, these land-use changes may have deleterious or beneficial effects on wildlife habitat and its ability to support wildlife species, both plant and animal. There exists an urgent need to develop methodologies that are capable of predicting the consequences, for wildlife species, of regional land-use changes. This study develops one such methodology to predict the distribution and abundance of animal species at a regional level.

Four communities or sites dominated by blackbrush (Cokoflne rumosissima Torr.) were studied in the Kaiparowits Basin of southern Utah and northern Arizona. One site has been heavily grazed yearlong for about 100 years; the second has been lightly to moderately grazed in winter for 3 years; the third has had 10 years of recovery from heavy grazing; and the fourth is a relic, ungrazed blackbrush ecosystem. Soils were 87 to 99% sand and gravel with mean pH’s 8.2 to 8.5. The relic site had significantly more herbaceous vegetation cover (composed primarily of perennial grasses) and total cover than all other sites. The relic site also had significantly more shrub and cryptogamic cover than the heavily grazed and recovery sites. The recovering site showed no significant differences than the heavily grazed site for any of the measured parameters.

In 1972 primary production of various emergent macrophytes was examined in Theresa Marsh, a shallow, semimanaged impoundment in southeastern Wisconsin. Dominant macrophytes included Typha latifolia, Scirpus fluviatilis, Carex lacustris, Phalaris arundinacea and a shrub, Salix interior. Seasonal patterns of production as well as total production varied greatly among species. With estimates for litter loss and belowground production, annual net primary production ranged from 1181 g/m/sup 2//year for Carex lacustrris to nearly 3200 g/m/sup 2//year for Typha latifolia. Peak standing crop values were generally among the highest reported. Average productivities during the growing season, however, were relatively low, ranging from 6.31 to 10.52 g/m/sup 2//day for aboveground standing crops. Primary production was also estimated for transient species that occurred on mud flats following a marsh drawdown. The high primary production within the marsh appears to be based on high nutrient levels as indicated by the marsh water and soil chemistry.