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Diversity, stand structure and regeneration potential are the key elements of any forest ecosystem. For the present study, seven sites were selected with the aims of assessing plant diversity, structure and regeneration potential in tropical forests across Kanyakumari Wildlife Sanctuary (KWLS), Western Ghats, India. The sites were classified based on the similarity: tropical dry deciduous sites (TDDs I and II), tropical semi-evergreen sites (TSEs I and II) and tropical evergreen sites (TEFs I-III). The phytosociological survey was done by laying a total of 70 plots (10 plots in each study site). Standard methods were followed for the assessment of diversity, structure and regeneration patterns. A total of 267 species (205 genera, 70 families) were recorded. The tree species richness ranged 24 (TDD II) – 76 (TEF III). Of the vegetation spectrum, trees, vines and understorey accounted 56.5, 15.3 and 28.2% respectively to the total flora documented. A total of 66 species were endemic. The total tree density and tree basal area (seedlings, saplings, juveniles and adults) were 18,790 individuals (mean 2684) and 137.6 m2 (mean 19.7 m2) in 70 plots respectively. The mean tree adult density and basal area ranged 370 (TDD I) – 900 (TEF I) individuals/ha and 24.2 (TDD I) – 75.3 (TEF III) m2/ha respectively. The overall species richness was highest in TDD I, but TEF III had the highest tree species richness. The diameter class-wise distribution showed the characteristic ‘reverse J-shaped’ curve. Most tree species were ‘newly recruited’. The dominant species had ‘fair’ to ‘good’ regeneration potential. However, 12 tree species showed ‘no’ regeneration. The overall regeneration pattern of trees was ‘good’, but ‘no’ or ‘poor’ regeneration patterns in some tree species, especially endemics is a point of concern. Since a majority of tree species were ‘new recruits’, species composition may likely change in the future. The results obtained would help in understanding diversity patterns, structural attributes and regeneration potential in tropical forests of protected areas for better forest management and conservation.

The current study analyzes the tree diversity and regeneration status of species between repeated forest fires and unburned areas of the tropical dry deciduous forest of Panna Tiger Reserve (PTR), ...

Tropical forests are rich in biodiversity with great potential for carbon (C) storage. We estimated ecosystem-level C stock using data from 70 forest plots in three major forest types: tropical dry deciduous (TDD I and TDD II), tropical semi-evergreen (TSE I and TSE II) and tropical evergreen forests (TEF I, TEF II and TEF III) of Kanyakumari Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Ghats, India. The average C stock in these forests was 336.8 Mg C/ha, of which 231.3, 3.0, 2.4, 15.2 and 84.9 Mg C/ha were stored in woody vegetation, understorey, litter, deadwood and soil respectively. The live vegetation, detritus and soil contributed 65.5%, 5.5% and 29% respectively to the total ecosystem-level C stock and distributed in forest types in the order: TEF III > TEF II > TEF I > TSE I > TDD II > TSE II > TDD I. The plant diversity, structural attributes and environmental factors showed significant positive correlations with C stocks and accounted for 6.7, 77.2 and 16% of variance. These findings indicate that the tropical forests in the Western Ghats store large amount of C, and resulting data are invaluable for planning and monitoring forest conservation and management programs to enhance C storage in tropical forests.

In the present study, attempts have been made to evaluate the geotechnical characteristics of Quaternary sediments of the Nubra Valley located in high-altitude Ladakh Himalaya to demarcate the active sediment (soil) zones and their bearing on natural hazards susceptibility and mitigation measures. The experimental works have been carried out on collected sediment (soils) samples from different locations and depths to determine their grain-size-sensitive parameters and geotechnical responses. The results reveal that the majority of uniformly graded sediments (soils) of size 0.02–2.0 mm fall in wide range of values of shear strengths, cohesions (c) and angle of internal frictions, which may be due to distinct variations in their bulk and dry densities, void ratios, and liquid and plastic limits. In view of evaluated geotechnical parameters, the sediment sequences of the valley are classified in normal and active sediment zones. The sediment layers of active zone exhibit a high rate of reduction in shear strengths and cohesions in comparison with normal zone due to higher liquid and plastic limits of sediments subjected to temperature-sensitive freezing and thawing actions and may responsible for slope instabilities, differential settlements and mass flow hazards. Hence, such sediment layers require serious and careful investigations for safe settlements and mitigation measures of natural hazards.

Variation in tree biomass and carbon (C) stocks in tropical dry forests is important at both regional and global scale to know their contribution in global C cycle. In Indian tropical forests, the ...

Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is a common disorder marked by repetitive occurrence of breathing cessation during sleep due to partial or complete upper airway obstruction. An obstructive airway and the successive asphyxia chronically overload the inspiratory muscles resulting in an increased inspiratory effort. The present systematic review aimed to examine the effects of inspiratory muscle training (IMT) on inspiratory muscle strength [maximal inspiratory pressure (PImax)], severity of disease [apnea hypopnoea index (AHI)], sleep quality [Pittsburgh sleep quality index (PSQI)], day time sleepiness [Epworth sleepiness scale (ESS)], lung function [forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV

An accurate characterization of the seasonal and inter-annual variability of agricultural residue burning in tropics is needed to devise strategies to control or minimize substantial amounts of particulate matter and pollutants released to the atmosphere through the burning of agricultural residues. The present study quantifies the spatiotemporal changes in agricultural residue burning in Madhya Pradesh, India. In this study, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data on the occurrence of fire over a period of 15 years (2002–2016) was used to characterize the spatial and temporal patterns of agricultural residue burning in Central India. Overall, there was an increasing trend of fire occurrence, which increased from 1268 in 2002 to 7915 in 2016. Most of these fires were in croplands (48.1%) followed by deciduous broadleaf forests (36%). Cropland fires were increased almost 10-fold from 454 in 2002 to 4359 in 2016 at an average annual rate of 64%. The agricultural residue fires were high in Rabi harvesting period (March to May), as compared to that in Kharif harvesting period (October to December). The present study indicates an increased agricultural residue burning activity in the Madhya Pradesh and needs an immediate attention and develop sustainable alternative methods for crop residue management. The present study also suggests that Modis can be used for long-term assessment of small fires. We recommend ploughing of agricultural residues into the soil as a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to the burning of crop residues.

Background and AimsLantana camara is a highly noxious invasive weed species of global concern. However, its impacts on floristic and soil properties in tropical dry deciduous forests are elusive and fragmented. We aimed to assess the changes in the flora and soil properties following the invasion by Lantana camara in Central Indian forest ecosystems.MethodsThree study sites were selected and each site was further divided into two subsites: Lantana-invaded (LI) and uninvaded (UI). In total, 60 plots of 0.25 ha each (10 plots in each subsite) were laid randomly. Within each plot floristic structure, composition, diversity and soil SOC, STN, M%, pH and bulk density were assessed.ResultsLantana-invaded sites showed a significant decrease in density (D), basal area (BA), species richness (SR) and evenness (E) of seedlings (< 3cm diameter at breast height (DBH)), juveniles (> 3-9.9cm DBH), and herbs. In LI sites, a reduction of 57 and 25% has been observed in lower DBH class of trees (< 3cm and > 3-9.9cm). In all LI sites, a significant increase of soil organic carbon (SOC), soil total nitrogen (STN) and soil moisture (M%) and a significant decrease of pH and bulk density (BD) were recorded.ConclusionsLantana may greatly impact the vegetation and soil properties and, successively, these strong changes increase its invasive potential and ability to replace native species by averting their natural regeneration potential. Therefore, a proper management strategy of this noxious weed is imperative to prevent its further expansion and future problems.

The rapid alteration in the global climate due to anthropogenic activities has profound eco-biological impacts, which invariably affect the ability of natural communities to effectively perform ecosystem services. The eco-biological impacts could be viewed across various dimensions including loss of biodiversity as well as ecosystem goods and services, changes in phenology, prevalence of droughts and forest fires, disease outbreaks, reduced crop yields and increase in intensity and frequency of extreme weather events. Although, the natural ecosystems are innately endowed with the ability to maintain homeostasis by means of resistance and resilience, this ability to cope up is severely impacted by various other factors like deforestation, habitat fragmentation, land-use change and biological invasion, which exacerbate the effects of climate change. The eco-biological impacts of climate change are tied with socio-economic aspects by means of market values of the produce, poverty, undernourishment, livelihood security, etc. At this crucial juncture, forest biomes offer an immense ecosystem service towards climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration. Nevertheless, the three major forest biomes, viz. tropical, temperate and boreal, with their unique characteristics, vary in their response to climate change as well as mitigation potential and response. This review chapter aims to understand the varied climate change impacts and the crucial roles of major forest biomes in climate change mitigation and their various ecological services to formulate better forest management strategies.

Quaternary sediment sequences deposited in the Kashmir basin show the cyclicity in the sedimentation patterns with fining upward sequences. The sediment successions show some abrupt changes in the deposition environment. The integrated sediment sequence of the basin preserves the number of soft sediment deformed structures sandwiched between the normal sedimentary structures. The detailed examination of these deformed as well as undeformed sediments within the successions using scanning electron microscope technique shows the presence of distinctive microstructural assemblages. The microstructures not only characterize the well distinct mineral constituents of Chlorites, Illites, Kaolinites, Halloysites and Smectites but also preserve some Chalk grains which results in the increase of porosity. Besides this, the sediments not only preserve the peculiar type of microstructures that signifies the depositional environment but also some distinct type of mechanically or wave generated microstructures which implies the influence of cyclic stressing or seismicity governed processes preserved within the sediments.

Seismic hazard analysis of the northwest Himalayan belt was carried out by using extreme value theory (EVT). The rate of seismicity (a value) and recurrence intervals with the given earthquake magnitude (b value) was calculated from the observed data using Gutenberg–Richter Law. The statistical evaluation of 12,125 events from 1902 to 2017 shows the increasing trend in their inter-arrival times. The frequency–magnitude relation exhibits a linear downslope trend with negative slope of 0.8277 and positive intercept of 4.6977. The empirical results showed that the annual risk probability of high magnitude earthquake M ≥ 7.7 in 50 years is 88% with recurrence period of 47 years, probability of M ≤ 7.5 in 50 years is 97% with recurrence period of 27 years, and probability of M ≤ 6.5 in 50 years is 100% with recurrence period of 4 years. Kashmir valley, located in the NW Himalaya, encompasses a peculiar tectonic and structural setup. The patterns of the present and historical seismicity records of the valley suggest a long-term strain accumulation along NNW and SSE extensions with the decline in the seismic gap, posing a potential threat of earthquakes in the future. The Kashmir valley is characterized by the typical lithological, tectono-geomorphic, geotechnical, hydrogeological and socioeconomic settings that augment the earthquake vulnerability associated with the seismicity of the region. The cumulative impact of the various influencing parameters therefore exacerbates the seismic hazard risk of the valley to future earthquake events.

Geomorphic and morphotectonic evaluations of the Kashmir Basin have been carried by implicating different geomorphic indices such as stream-gradient index (SL), hypsometric integral (HI), drainage basin asymmetry (AF), valley floor height and width ratio (Vf), transverse topographic symmetry factor (T), mountain front sinuosity (Smf), drainage basin shape (BS) and sinuosity index (SI) for the categorization of relative index of active tectonics (RIAT) through the use of geographic information systems (GIS) so as to decipher the role of neotectonics in geomorphologic evolution of the basin. The verified RIAT classes through field investigation and validation reveal the traverse of twenty-one active faults in the basin with demarcation of three RIAT classes viz., class-1 (inactive 20.07% of the area), class-2 (moderately active; 36.52% of the area) and class-3 (very active; 43.4% of the area). The observed values of RIAT distribution pattern are well corroborated with field observations. Ultimately, the overall geomorphic outputs and clustering of recent seismicity support the active tectonic control over the Kashmir basin, India.

Forest biomass pools are the major reservoirs of atmospheric carbon in both coniferous and broad-leaved forest ecosystems and thus play an important role in regulating the regional and global carbo...

In the present study, attempts have been made to evaluate the geotechnical characteristics of Quaternary sediments from high altitude Ladakh Himalaya to demarcate the active sediment (soil) for its bearing on natural hazards susceptibility and mitigation measures. The experimental works have been carried out on collected sediments (soils) from different locations and depths during year 2014 for determination of grain size sensitive parameters and geotechnical attributes as per American Society for Testing and Materials standard and empirical relationships. The results reveal that the majority of uniformly graded sediments (soils) of size 0.02–2.0 mm exhibit wide range of shear, cohesions (c) and angle of internal frictions may be due to difference in their bulk and dry densities, void ratios, liquid limit, plastic limit and liquid index. Thus, the sediments of Leh Valley can be classified in normal sediment (soil) unit and normally active sediment (soil) unit. The normally active unit exhibits lower shear strengths and cohesions in comparison to normal unit due to higher liquid and plastic limits of sediment subjected to temperature sensitive freezing and thawing actions. The active sediment (soil) unit has been found more prone to slope instabilities, differential settlements and mass flow hazards, hence requires special care during developments and mitigation measures.

Sequestration of atmospheric carbon-dioxide in biospheric carbon (C) pools is a key strategy towards climate change mitigation. Soil is a huge C reservoir and its storage potential varies greatly with forest types. Therefore, in the present study, the soil organic carbon (SOC) storage pattern was assessed from 70 plots laid at three selected forest types comprising seven study sites at Kanyakumari Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Ghats, India: tropical dry deciduous (TDD I and TDD II), tropical semi-evergreen (TSE I and TSE II) and tropical evergreen forest (TEF I, TEF II and TEF III) at three depths (0-10, 10.1-20 and 20.1-30 cm). Statistical analyses were performed to understand the relationships between SOC stocks with other predictor variables. The SOC stock varied markedly with forest type and site-wise. The SOC ranged from 58 (TEF III) to 123.6 (TDD I) Mg C/ha with a mean of 84.9 ± 4.4 Mg C/ha at 0-30 cm depth. SOC stock decreased, while soil bulk density increased with increase in soil depth. The TDD forest type (115.6 Mg C/ha) stocked the highest SOC compared to TEF (75.1 Mg C/ha) and TSE (68.9 Mg C/ha) forest types. Of the total SOC stock (0-30 cm), 44.2, 32.0 and 23.8% were stored in 0-10, 10.1-20 and 20.1-30 cm respectively in all the forest types. In contrast, litter C stock were high in TEF and TSE forest types and low in TDD forest type. SOC showed significant (P < 0.01) negative relationships with bulk density, litter C, and vegetation attributes. The SOC stock stored in the study sites amount to 212.9 (TEF III) to 453.6 (TDD I) Mg of CO2 equivalents. The present study reveals that forest type and site characteristics have a profound impact on SOC stock, which would, in turn, exert a great bearing on the ecosystem C cycling. These results would also enhance our ability to evaluate the role of these forest types in soil C sequestration and for developing and validating SOC models for tropical forest ecosystems.

Sacred groves are small or large patches of forest and are rich in biodiversity, store carbon (C) in biomass and soil, besides providing important ecosystem services. However, the information on tree species diversity, biomass, and C storage in sacred groves of Central India, Madhya Pradesh is elusive and fragmented. In the present study, 41 sacred groves were inventoried for tree species diversity, biomass, and C storage in vegetation and soil. A total of 103 tree species from 81 genera belonging to 37 families were recorded. Shannon’s diversity, Dominance, Fisher’s alpha, and species evenness indices for trees varied: 0.77–2.53, 0.07–0.64, 1.58–20.37, and 0.28–0.90 respectively. Tree density ranged 75–675 no. of stems ha−1 with a mean of 271 no. of stems ha−1, while basal area ranged 6.8–47 m2 ha−1 with a mean value of 27 m2 ha−1. Tree biomass ranged 34.9–409.8 Mg ha−1 with a mean value of 194.01 Mg ha−1, while, tree C ranged between 17.5 and 204.9 Mg C ha−1 with a mean value of 97.0 Mg C ha−1. The total soil organic carbon stock (0–30 cm) ranged from 22.4 to 112.5 Mg C ha−1 with the mean value of 62 Mg C ha−1. Biomass C and SOC contributed 61% and 39% of the total C stocks, respectively. Tree C stock showed a significant positive relationship with tree basal area (R2 = 0.968). A total of five tree species belonging to four families were found to be vulnerable in Central India. The present study reveals that the sacred groves of Central India are species rich, have higher C stocks and sequestration potential in both vegetation and soil, and calls for an immediate attention for conservation and planning for long-term C sequestration.

Tropical forests are the richest biodiversity hotspots and are under immense natural and anthropogenic pressures that lead to biodiversity loss. One such cause is alien plant invasion that alters the native forest stand structure and composition and disrupts the vital ecosystem functions. Central India, which mainly spans across the three states, viz. Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and some parts of Maharashtra, is well-known for its sprawling tropical deciduous forests, which are also no less immune to the present-day pressures, including the plant invasion. Alien invasive plants arrive via several pathways and possess unique traits that help them to surpass the barriers in the new habitats, where many influential factors might operate upon them. Once established, they may profoundly impact the invaded ecosystem. Most of the studies from Central India have been focused on floristics, forest structure, impact of disturbances, etc., and relatively few studies have addressed plant invasion. Overall, there are 179 invasive taxa in Central India, mostly from the Asteraceae (17.3%) and Fabaceae (14.5%) families. Majority of them are from Tropical America (52%), and most are herbs (69%). An outline of the most common top ten Central Indian invaders has been presented. Climate change might influence invasive plants, and constant monitoring and modelling is required to understand invasive species dynamics for effective management. Invasive alien species are to be tended with extreme caution and smart and novel approaches of putting them to use might help in better management for controlling them. This review will also provide a conceptual basis for improving our general understanding on invasive species and their impact on tropical forest ecosystems.

The seismically sensitive soft sediment deformations of Karewa Group have been geotechnically analysed to explore the status and frequency of past Quaternary earthquakes in Kashmir valley, India. The detailed studies were performed to establish the sequences of sedimentary structures in general and deformed structures in particular in view of geotechnical parameters. For the purpose the collected sediments from different deformed zones were analysed as per American Standard of Testing Materials for determination of size gradations, liquid limit, plastic limit and flow indices. The studied sequences of deformations were established in space and time by using empirically relationship. The structural architectures of sedimentary features (cross-beddings, massive beddings/loads) reveal the fluvial environments of fluctuating energy conditions for formation of sediment successions. In addition, the sandwiched-zonations of some peculiar structures preserved in the litho-succession may be formed through mechanism different from sedimentations. The size distribution of sediments from sandwiched-zone exhibits medium to fine sands and silt with sorting coefficients ranging from 1.21 to 2.54, coefficient of uniformity ranging from 1.26 to 3.6 with some exceptional values like 5.0, 16.6 and coefficient of curvature ranging from 0.67 to 1.80. The sediments of the same zone show the values of liquidity index ranging from 0.16 to 0.88 and plasticity index ranging from 3.69 to 18.57 with low blows values. These above size sensitive geotechnical parameter values show the higher flow indices and least resistance to flow. The sediments of the peculiar structural zone with characteristically higher flow indices and low resistance support the formation of the soft-sediment structures under seismic stress condition. The demarcated sandwiched zones with such conditions at the time frame of 1,06,566.6 years, 93,245.8 years and 54,502.8 years ago from recent appears to supports three prominent earthquake events (I, II and III) in the geological history of Quaternary deposits around Kashmir Valley, India.

Kashmir valley India is located in seismically active Himalayan-Hindukush belt, which has been witnessed by the number of high magnitude earthquakes during the past centuries. The presence of active seismogenic faults, soft alluvium and shallow groundwater levels in the basin of the Kashmir valley signifies its detrimental effect on the occurrences of future strong ground motions. In view of severe damaging attitudes and frequent occurrences of earthquakes in the region the present paper emphasizes attenuation model for seismic hazards zonation to ensure the safe and comfortable expansion of settlements and industrial establishments. For the purpose detailed study was performed on the seismically deformed beds, water-table conditions and past seismic activities of the area around the valley. The results of study reveal the peak ground acceleration (PGA) of 10, 5 and 2 % probabilities of event in 50-year lifetime with probability of 2 % for PGA = 0.652 (g), 5 % for PGA = 0.460 (g) and 10 % for PGA = 0.372 (g) which varies with the different surface and sub-surface conditions of the area.

The heavy wind along with high rainfall of the catastrophic windstorm “Thane” cyclone cause defoliation, uprooting and snapping of stems and branches of trees in Pondicherry University Campus, Puducherry. A total of 1181 (20%) trees (>3.2 cm DBH) in Pondicherry University Campus were uprooted due to the Thane cyclone. Tree mortality (uprooted) and damage (broken) were observed more in Acacia auriculiformis than other species in response to Thane cyclone in Pondicherry University campus. In the present study, wood density did not show any significant relationship between the damage, mortality and resistance (standing with defoliation and minor branch fall). Acacia auriculiformis was more susceptible to Thane cyclone followed by Tectona grandis. However, Azadirachta indica and Mangifera indica were observed more resistance to thane cyclone. The greater uprooting in introduced plantation species such as Acacia auriculiformis and Tectona grandis was higher than native species Azadirachta indica and Mangifera indica which could be attributed to spread their roots in the surface soil and they do not penetrate deeper into the soil .

Interactions between biodiversity loss and climate change pose significant challenges for scientific research, policy-making, and the management of ecosystem processes. Greenhouse gases released from vegetation fires have been identified as a key environmental issue within the context of global warming and climate change due to increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Occurring mostly during the dry season in India, the burning of vegetation causes a variety of negative environmental impacts on air and soil quality. The present study estimates greenhouse gas emissions caused by vegetation fires in Central India through the use of MODISbased burnt area maps, Land sat-based land cover maps, biometric models, and pre-existing datasets. Greenhouse gas emissions were calculated as the product of area burnt, biomass loading per unit area, combustion factor, and emission factor. The results indicate that the number of fires and burnt areas increased significantly between 2002 and 2016, MODIS fire counts increased from 720 to 3165 between 2002 and 2016. A strong correlation between area burnt and greenhouse gas emissions allowed for accurate emissions estimates once area burnt was quantified. These variations in vegetation fire cycles have an important influence on forest composition and structure at the landscape and regional levels, and maintenance of this natural variability should be targeted by forest managers concerned with biodiversity conservation. These results indicate that continued vegetation fires will produce a greater impact on global carbon emissions and reduce forest biodiversity. Fire emissions have been increasing over the past decades and are likely to remain high due to forecasted changes in fire caused by climate change.

The present study was carried out on free-range backyard chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) from April 2011 to March 2012 (10 hosts per month) to determine the prevalence, mean intensity and species diversity of cestode parasites of domestic fowl in Kashmir valley, northwest Himalayan region of India. Of the total 120 (50 male and 70 female) chickens collected from different localities of Kashmir , 103 (85.83 %) were found infected with cestode parasites. In this survey nine cestode parasites belonging to four genera were recovered from the gastrointestinal tract of infected chickens. The cestode species and their prevalence were: Raillietina tetragona (65%), R. cesticillus (22.50%), R. echinobothrida (33.33%), R. spiralis (26.66%), Choanotaenia infundibulum (18.33%), C. gondwana (10.83%), Amoebotaenia cuneata (20.00%), A. domesticus (15.00%), Davainea proglottina (18.33%).

Soil CO2 efflux was measured in four different coniferous forest types (Cedrus deodara (CD), Pinus wallichiana (PW), mixed coniferous (MC), and Abies pindrow (AP)) for a period of 2 years (April 2012 to December 2013). The monthly soil CO2 efflux ranged from 0.8 to 4.1 μmoles CO2 m(-2) s(-1) in 2012 and 1.01 to 5.48 μmoles CO2 m(-2) s(-1) in 2013. The soil CO2 efflux rate was highest in PW forest type in both the years, while it was lowest in MC and CD forest types during 2012 and 2013, respectively. Soil temperature (TS) at a depth of 10 cm ranged from 3.8 to 19.4 °C in 2012 and 3.5 to 19.1 °C in 2013 in all the four forest types. Soil moisture (MS) ranged from 19.8 to 58.6% in 2012 and 18.5 to 58.6% in 2013. Soil CO2 efflux rate was found to be significantly higher in summer than the other seasons and least during winter. Soil CO2 efflux showed a significant positive relationship with TS (R2=0.52 to 0.74), SOC% (R2=0.67), pH (R2=0.68), and shrub biomass (R2=0.51), whereas, only a weak positive relationship was found with soil moisture (R2=0.16 to 0.41), tree density (R2=0.25), tree basal area (R2=0.01), tree biomass (R2=0.07), herb biomass (R2=0.01), and forest floor litter (R2=0.02). Thus, the study indicates that soil CO2 efflux in high mountainous areas is greatly influenced by seasons, soil temperature, and other environmental factors.

An accurate characterization of tree, understory, deadwood, floor litter, and soil organic carbon (SOC) pools in temperate forest ecosystems is important to estimate their contribution to global carbon (C) stocks. However, this information on temperate forests of the Himalayas is lacking and fragmented. In this study, we measured C stocks of tree (aboveground and belowground biomass), understory (shrubs and herbaceous), deadwood (standing and fallen trees and stumps), floor litter, and soil from 111 plots of 50 m × 50 m each, in seven forest types: Populus deltoides (PD), Juglans regia (JR), Cedrus deodara (CD), Pinus wallichiana (PW), mixed coniferous (MC), Abies pindrow (AP), and Betula utilis (BU) in temperate forests of Kashmir Himalaya, India. The main objective of the present study is to quantify the ecosystem C pool in these seven forest types. The results showed that the tree biomass ranged from 100.8 Mg ha(-1) in BU forest to 294.8 Mg ha(-1) for the AP forest. The understory biomass ranged from 0.16 Mg ha(-1) in PD forest to 2.36 Mg ha(-1) in PW forest. Deadwood biomass ranged from 1.5 Mg ha(-1) in PD forest to 14.9 Mg ha(-1) for the AP forest, whereas forest floor litter ranged from 2.5 Mg ha(-1) in BU and JR forests to 3.1 Mg ha(-1) in MC forest. The total ecosystem carbon stocks varied from 112.5 to 205.7 Mg C ha(-1) across all the forest types. The C stocks of tree, understory, deadwood, litter, and soil ranged from 45.4 to 135.6, 0.08 to 1.18, 0.7 to 6.8, 1.1 to 1.4, and 39.1-91.4 Mg ha(-1), respectively, which accounted for 61.3, 0.2, 1.4, 0.8, and 36.3 % of the total carbon stock. BU forest accounted 65 % from soil C and 35 % from biomass, whereas PD forest contributed only 26 % from soil C and 74 % from biomass. Of the total C stock in the 0-30-cm soil, about 55 % was stored in the upper 0-10 cm. Soil C stocks in BU forest were significantly higher than those in other forests. The variability of C pools of different ecosystem components is influenced by vegetation type, stand structure, management history, and altitude. Our results reveal that a higher percentage (63 %) of C is stored in biomass and less in soil in these temperate forests except at the higher elevation broad-leaved BU forest. Results from this study will enhance our ability to evaluate the role of these forests in regional and global C cycles and have great implications for planning strategies for conservation. The study provides important data for developing and validating C cycling models for temperate forests.

Soil organic carbon stocks were measured at three depths (0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm) in seven altitudes dominated by different forest types viz. Populus deltoides, 1550–1800 m; Juglans regia, 1800–2000 m; Cedrus deodara, 2050–2300 m; Pinus wallichiana, 2000–2300 m; mixed type, 2200–2400 m; Abies pindrow, 2300–2800 m; and Betula utilis, 2800–3200 m in temperate mountains of Kashmir Himalayas. The mean range of soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks varied from 39.07 to 91.39 Mg C ha−1 in J. regia and B. utilis forests at 0–30 cm depth, respectively. Among the forest types, the lowest mean range of SOC at three depths (0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm) was observed in J. regia (18.55, 11.31, and 8.91 Mg C ha−1, respectively) forest type, and the highest was observed in B. utilis (54.10, 21.68, and 15.60 Mg C ha−1, respectively) forest type. SOC stocks showed significantly (R 2 = 0.67, P = 0.001) an increasing trend with increase in altitude. On average, the percentages of SOC at 0–10-, 10–20-, and 20–30-cm depths were 53.2, 26.5, and 20.3 %, respectively. Bulk density increased significantly with increase in soil depth and decreased with increase in altitude. Our results suggest that SOC stocks in temperate forests of Kashmir Himalaya vary greatly with forest type and altitude. The present study reveals that SOC stocks increased with increase in altitude at high mountainous regions. Climate change in these high mountainous regions will alter the carbon sequestration potential, which would affect the global carbon cycle.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) in the temperate forests of the Himalayas is important to estimate their contribution to regional, national and global carbon stocks. This information however is poor and fragmented in regards to the western Himalayas of India. No published information is available on SOC stock in this region. Carbon stocks were assessed at different soil depths (0-10, 10-20 and 20-30 cm) in Pinus wallichiana (PW) and Abies pindrow (AP) forest types in the western Kashmir Himalayas of India. SOC stocks in these temperate forests were relatively low ranging from 50.37 to 55.38 Mg C ha-1 in the top 30 cm of soils. Significantly greater SOC stock was observed in PW forest type compared to AP forest type. Tree density, shrub density, shrub biomass, herb biomass and forest floor litter were greater in the PW forest type as compared to AP forest type, which could be the reason for greater accumulation of organic carbon in soil. The present study revealed that tree species composition and its associated underground vegetation alter SOC accumulation in the moist temperate forest ecosystems. In addition, environmental parameters such as soil moisture and soil biological activity change soil carbon sequestration potential in moist temperate forest ecosystems.

A substantial increase in the number of forest plantations has been observed in the last two decades owing to a greater awareness on climate change and global initiative of REDD and REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) programs. In light of this, biomass and total carbon stocks of woody plants were estimated in five study sites–four plantations and a natural forest at Puthupet, Tamil Nadu, India. The aboveground biomass in the study sites were 32.7, 38.1, 121.1, 143.2and 227.2 (Mg/ha) in Anacardium occidentale, Casuarina equisetifolia, Mangifera indica, Cocos nucifera and natural forest respectively. In the natural forest, Pterospermum canescens contributed to the greatest aboveground biomass (55.54 Mg/ha), whereas the least was from Diospyros ferrea (1.07 Mg/ha). The maximum carbon stock was reported from the natural forest site (131.8 Mg/ha) while the minimum was from Anacardium occidentale plantation (19.5 Mg/ha). A significant positive relationship was observed between basal area with biomass and total carbon. The low values of biomass and carbon stocks in plantations maybe due to less stand age structure. Our results suggest that besides the natural forests, plantations also have great potential for carbon sequestration in the coastal areas and suggest developing more plantations and retaining it for a longer period of time will be helpful in reducing the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.

Soil CO2 efflux was measured by alkali absorption method from April to December 2012 in two different forest types, i.e., Pinus wallichiana and Abies pindrow, with three replicate plots in each forest type. Soil CO2 efflux was found maximum in July and minimum in December in both the forest types. Significantly (P

In fresh water ecosystems water quality plays an important role in determining the status and condition of that fresh water ecosystem. During the present study an attempt was made to analyse some of the important physicochemical parameters of the water samples of the Monomictic Manasbal Lake, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, located at a distance of 30 km north from the Srinagar to check the pollution load and human pressure on the lake. Various physico-chemical parameters were analysed during 2008-2009 at four different sites at monthly intervals by following standard methods. Among the various parameters recorded the overall surface water temperature ranged from 4.4°C to 23.5°C; Air temperature ranged from 6.1°C to 32.9°C; Turbidity index (Secchi-disc transparency) from 3.35 to 4.58; Dissolved oxygen from 6.8 to 8.6 mg L-1; pH from 7.29 to 8.98 ; Electric Conductivity varied from 333 to 387 μs cm-1; Total Alkalinity varied from 121 to147 mg L-1; Chloride values ranged from 15.3 to 23.30 mg L-1; Total Hardness ranged from 121 to 186 mg L-1; Ammonical Nitrogen varied from 49.21 to 70.84 μg L-1; Nitrate Nitrogen varied from 130.3 to 166.2 μg L-1 Nitrite Nitrogen ranged from 2.87 to 21.49 μg L-1; and Phosphate Phosphorous ranged from 1.54 to 16.16 μg L-1. Almost all the above parameters show that the pollution load is increasing due to anthropogenic pressure and climatic factors which results the eutrophic condition of the lake, so immediate remedial measures should be taken for its protection from further pollution.

Plant biodiversity patterns were analyzed in seven temperate forest types [Populus deltoides (PD), Juglans regia, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, mixed coniferous, Abies pindrow (AP) and Betula utilis (BU)] of Kashmir Himalaya. A total of 177 plant species (158 genera, 66 families) were recorded. Most of the species are herbs (82.5%), while shrubs account for 9.6% and trees represent 7.9%. Species richness ranged from 24 (PD) to 96 (AP). Shannon, Simpson, and Fisher α indices varied: 0.17–1.06, 0.46–1.22, and 2.01–2.82 for trees; 0.36–0.94, 0.43–0.75, and 0.08–0.35 for shrubs; and 0.35–1.41, 0.27–0.95, and 5.61–39.98 for herbs, respectively. A total of five species were endemic. The total stems and basal area of trees were 35,794 stems (stand mean 330 stems/ha) and 481.1 m2 (stand mean 40.2 m2/ha), respectively. The mean density and basal area ranged from 103 stems/ha (BU) to 1,201 stems/ha (PD), and from 19.4 m2/ha (BU) to 51.9 m2/ha (AP), respectively. Tree density decreased with increase in diameter class. A positive relationship was obtained between elevation and species richness and between elevation and evenness (R2 = 0.37 and 0.19, respectively). Tree and shrub communities were homogenous in nature across the seven forest types, while herbs showed heterogeneous distribution pattern.