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Preferential groundwater flow paths can influence dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration and export in the fluvial network because they facilitate the inflow of terrestrial DOC from large upslope contributing areas to discrete sections of the stream, referred to as discrete riparian inflow points (DRIPs). However, the mechanisms by which DRIPs influence longitudinal patterns of stream DOC concentrations are still poorly understood. In this study, we ask how DRIPs affect longitudinal patterns of stream DOC concentrations under different hydrologic conditions, as they can simultaneously act as major sources of terrestrial DOC and important locations for in-stream processes. To answer this question, we tested four model structures that account for different representations of hydrology (distributed inflows of DRIPs vs. diffuse groundwater inflow) and in-stream processes (no DOC uptake vs. in-stream DOC uptake downstream of DRIPs) to simulate stream DOC concentrations along a 1.5 km headwater reach for 14 sampling campaigns with flow conditions ranging from droughts to floods. Despite the magnitude and longitudinal patterns of stream DOC concentration varying across campaigns, at least one model structure was able to capture longitudinal trends during each campaign. Specifically, our results showed that during snowmelt periods or high-flow conditions (>50 L s−1), accounting for distributed inputs of DRIPs improved simulations of stream DOC concentrations along the reach, because groundwater inputs from DRIPs diluted the DOC in transport. Moreover, accounting for in-stream DOC uptake immediately downstream of DRIPs improved simulations during five sampling campaigns that were performed during spring and summer, indicating that these locations served as a resource of DOC for aquatic biota. These results show that the role of DRIPs in modulating DOC concentration, cycling, and export varies over time and depends strongly on catchment hydrology. Therefore, accounting for DRIPs can improve stream biogeochemistry frameworks and help inform management of riparian areas under current and future climatic conditions.

Small headwater lakes are common water features in northern environments. These small lakes are often reported to have an influence on downstream water quality; however, few studies have addressed the underlying hydrology of these systems and how small lakes influence downstream discharge or how far downstream these influences persist. We show that catchments with small lakes sustain baseflows compared to catchments without lakes. In addition, small lakes have limited influence on the magnitude and timing of peakflow events, except for immediately downstream of the lake where peakflow hydrographs are characterized by low magnitude and long duration. The relative contribution of lake water to downstream discharge can vary widely in time (between 0% and 75%) and be detectable when lakes make up as little as 0.5% of catchment area. This variability and persistence of lake water in stream networks may have important implications for how we interpret water quality patterns downstream of small lakes.

Headwater streams can be important sources of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) to the atmosphere. However, the influence of groundwater-stream connectivity on the patterns and sources of carb ...

Hydrological processes at hillslope and catchment scales explain a large part of stream chemistry dynamics through source-transport mechanisms from terrestrial to aquatic ecosystems. Riparian zones play a central role, as they exert a strong influence on the chemical signature of groundwater discharge to streams. Especially important are riparian areas where upslope subsurface flow paths converge, because they connect a large part of the catchment to a narrow section of the stream. Recent research shows that both in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, riparian convergence zones fulfill important biogeochemical functions that differ from surrounding riparian zones. Most catchment-scale conceptual frameworks focus on generalized hillslope-riparian-stream transects and do not explicitly consider riparian convergence zones. This study integrates collective work on hydrology, groundwater chemistry, vegetation and soils of discrete riparian inflow points (DRIPs) in a boreal landscape. We show that compared to adjacent riparian forests, DRIPs have groundwater levels that are consistently near the surface, and supply organic-rich water to streams. We suggest that interactions between hydrology, wetland vegetation, and peat soil development that occur in DRIPs leads to their unique groundwater chemistry and runoff dynamics. Stream-based studies show that across flow conditions, groundwater inputs from DRIPs to headwater reaches influence stream temperature, water chemistry and biology. As such, accounting for DRIPs can complement existing hillslope and stream observations, which would allow better representation of chemical and biological interactions associated with convergence of subsurface flow paths in riparian zones.

The supply of terrestrial dissolved organic carbon (DOC) to aquatic ecosystems affects local in-stream processes and downstream transport of DOC in the fluvial network. However, we have an incomplete understanding on how terrestrial DOC inputs alter longitudinal variations of DOC concentration along headwater stream reaches because groundwater discharge, groundwater DOC concentration and in-stream DOC uptake vary at relatively short spatial and temporal scales. In the riparian zone, the convergence of subsurface flow paths can facilitate the inflow of terrestrial DOC from large upslope contributing areas to narrow sections of the stream. We refer to these areas of flow path convergence as discrete riparian inflow points (DRIPs). In this study, we ask how longitudinal patterns of stream DOC concentrations are affected by DRIPs, as they are major inputs of terrestrial DOC and important locations for in-stream processes. We used a mixing model to simulate stream DOC concentrations along a 1.5 km headwater reach for fifteen sampling campaigns with flow conditions ranging from droughts to floods. Four sets of model scenarios were used to compare different representations of hydrology (distributed inputs of DRIPs vs diffuse groundwater inflow), and in-stream processes (passive transport vs in-stream biological uptake). Results showed that under medium (10–50 l/s) and high flow conditions (> 50 l/s), accounting for lateral groundwater inputs from DRIPs improved simulations of stream DOC concentrations along the reach. Moreover, in-stream biological uptake improved simulations across low to medium flow conditions (

Within the last two centuries, the Mississippi River basin has been transformed by changes in land use practices, dam construction and training of the rivers for navigation. Here we analyze the contemporary patterns of fluvial sediment yield in the Mississippi River basin using all available data in order to assess the influence of regional land condition on the variation of sediment yield within the basin. We develop regional scale relations between specific sediment yield (yield per unit area) and drainage area to reveal contemporary regional sediment yield patterns and source areas of riverine sediments. Extensive upland erosion before the development of soil conservation practices exported large amounts of sediment to the valleys and floodplains [Trimble, 1981; Belmont et al., 2011]. We show that sediment today is sourced primarily along the river valleys from arable land, and from stream bank and channel erosion, with sediment yields from areas dominated by arable land two orders of magnitude greater than that of grassland dominated areas. Comparison with the “T factor”, a commonly quoted measure of agricultural soil resilience suggests that the latter may not reflect contemporary soil loss from the landscape.

Stream temperature controls a number of biological, chemical and physical processes occurring in aquatic environments. Transient snow cover and advection associated with lateral throughflow inputs can have a dominant influence on stream thermal regimes for headwater catchments in the rain-on-snow zone. Most existing stream temperature models lack the ability to properly simulate these processes. We developed and evaluated a conceptual-parametric catchment-scale stream temperature model that includes the role of transient snow cover and lateral advection associated with throughflow. The model consists of routines for simulating canopy interception, snow accumulation and melt, hillslope throughflow runoff and temperature, and stream channel energy exchange processes. The model was used to predict discharge and stream temperature for a small forested headwater catchment near Vancouver, Canada, using long-term (1963-2013) weather data to compute model forcing variables. The model was evaluated against four years of observed stream temperature. The model generally predicted daily mean stream temperature accurately (annual RMSE between 0.57 and 1.24 ∘C) although it overpredicted daily summer stream temperatures by up to 3 ∘C during extended low streamflow conditions. Model development and testing provided insights on the roles of advection associated with lateral throughflow, channel interception of snow and surface–subsurface water interactions on stream thermal regimes. This study shows that a relatively simple but process-based model can provide reasonable stream temperature predictions for forested headwater catchments located in the rain-on-snow zone.

Groundwater discharge along streams exerts an important influence on biogeochemistry and thermal regimes of aquatic ecosystems. A common approach for predicting locations of shallow lateral groundwater discharge is to use digital elevation models (DEMs) combined with upslope contributing area algorithms. We evaluated a topography-based prediction of subsurface discharge zones along a 1500 m headwater stream reach using temperature and water isotope tracers. We deployed fiber-optic distributed temperature sensing instrumentation to monitor stream temperature at 0.25 m intervals along the reach. We also collected samples of stream water for the analysis of its water isotope composition at 50 m intervals on five occasions representing distinct streamflow conditions before, during, and after a major rain event. The combined tracer evaluation showed that topography-predicted locations of groundwater discharge were generally accurate; however, predicted magnitude of groundwater inflows estimated from upslope contributing area did not always agree with tracer estimates. At the catchment scale, lateral inflows were an important source of streamflow at base flow and peak flow during a major rain event; however, water from a headwater lake was the dominant water source during the event hydrograph recession. Overall, this study highlights potential utility and limitations of predicting locations and contributions of lateral groundwater discharge zones using topography-based approaches in humid boreal regions.

Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) influences stream nitrogen (N) dynamics by regulating the nutrient demand of heterotrophic microbes and mediating their interactions with nitrifiers. However, DOC supply to streams is dynamic in space and time, which may create variability in N dynamics as a result of shifts between heterotrophic and chemoautotrophic influences. To test this, we measured spatial and temporal variation in concentrations and net uptake of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), ammonium (NH4+), and nitrate (NO3−) along a 1.4-km boreal stream fed by 4 discrete groundwater inflow zones. We also performed constant rate additions of NH4+, with and without acetate, to test the influence of labile DOC availability on N cycling. Groundwater N supply did not drive spatial patterns in N concentrations. However, we observed high rates of net NH4+ uptake at the sub-reach with the greatest groundwater DOC inputs, whereas net nitrification occurred where such inputs were negligible. At the reach scale, net DON and NH4+ uptake increased with greater groundwater discharge, DOC∶DIN, and ecosystem respiration, whereas net nitrification increased with greater DOC aromaticity. Finally, constant rate additions showed that, under increased DOC availability, NH4+ uptake increased 2×, whereas the proportion of NH4+ nitrified decreased from 42 to 15%. Together, these observations suggest that nitrification rivals heterotrophic uptake when aromatic DOC promotes heterotrophic carbon limitation. Discrete groundwater inflows and periods of elevated discharge can partially alleviate this limitation by supplying labile DOC from riparian soils. Hence, accounting for these land–water connections, over both time and space, is critical for understanding N dynamics in boreal streams.

Thermal regimes of forested headwater streams control the growth and distribution of various aquatic organisms. In a western Oregon, USA, case study we examined: (1) forested headwater stream temperature variability in space and time; (2) relationships between stream temperature patterns and weather, above-stream canopy cover, and geomorphic attributes; and (3) the predictive ability of a regional stream temperature model to account for headwater stream temperature heterogeneity. Stream temperature observations were collected at 48 sites within a 128-ha managed forest in western Oregon during 2012 and 2013. Headwater stream temperatures showed the greatest spatial variability during summer (range up to 10 $$^\circ$$ C) and during cold and dry winter periods (range up to 7.5 $$^\circ$$ C), but showed less spatial variability during spring, fall and wet winter periods (range between 2 and 5 $$^\circ$$ C). Distinct thermal regimes among sites were identified; however, geomorphic attributes typically used in regional stream temperature models were not good predictors of thermal variability at headwater scales. A regional stream temperature model captured the mode of mean August temperatures observed across the study area, but overpredicted temperatures for a quarter of the sites by up to 2.8 $$^\circ$$ C. This study indicates considerable spatial thermal variability may occur at scales not resolved by regional stream temperature models. Recognizing this sub-landscape variability may be important when predicting distributions of aquatic organisms and their habitat under climate and environment change scenarios.

Understanding stream carbon export dynamics is needed to accurately predict how the carbon balance of peatland catchments will respond to climatic and environmental change. We used a 12year record ...

Stream temperature dynamics during winter are less well studied than summer thermal regimes, but the winter season thermal regime can be critical for fish growth and development in coastal catchments. The winter thermal regimes of Pacific Northwest headwater streams, which provide vital winter habitat for salmonids and their food sources, may be particularly sensitive to changes in climate because they can remain ice-free throughout the year and are often located in rain-on-snow zones. This study examined winter stream temperature patterns and controls in small headwater catchments within the rain-on-snow zone at the Malcolm Knapp Research Forest, near Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Two hypotheses were addressed by this study: (1) winter stream temperatures are primarily controlled by advective fluxes associated with runoff processes and (2) stream temperatures should be depressed during rain-on-snow events, compared to rain-on-bare-ground events, due to the cooling effect of rain passing through the snowpack prior to infiltrating the soil or being delivered to the stream as saturation-excess overland flow. A reach-scale energy budget analysis of two winter seasons revealed that the advective energy input associated with hillslope runoff overwhelms vertical energy exchanges (net radiation, sensible and latent heat fluxes, bed heat conduction, and stream friction) and hyporheic energy fluxes during rain and rain-on-snow events. Historical stream temperature data and modelled snowpack dynamics were used to explore the influence of transient snow cover on stream temperature over 13 winters. When snow was not present, daily stream temperature during winter rain events tended to increase with increasing air temperature. However, when snow was present, stream temperature was capped at about 5 °C, regardless of air temperature. The stream energy budget modelling and historical analysis support both of our hypotheses. A key implication is that climatic warming may generate higher winter stream temperatures in the rain-on-snow zone due to both increased rain temperature and reduced cooling effect of snow cover.

A growing body of research on stream thermal regimes has highlighted the importance of heat advection associated with surface water and groundwater interactions, such as hyporheic exchange, groundwater discharge, and hillslope throughflow inputs. Existing catchment models that predict stream temperature use a variety of approaches to estimate throughflow temperatures, but none has been evaluated against field measurements of throughflow temperature. In this study, throughflow temperatures were monitored over two winters at 50 locations adjacent to a headwater stream (11 ha catchment area) located in the rain-on-snow zone of the Pacific Northwest. Existing approaches to estimate throughflow temperature under or overpredicted throughflow temperatures by up to 5°C, or were unable to represent the influence of transient snow cover. Therefore, a conceptual-parametric model that is computationally efficient was developed that simulates hillslope hydrology and throughflow temperatures. The model structure includes an upslope reservoir that drains into a downslope reservoir that, in turn, drains into the stream. Vertical and lateral energy and water fluxes are simulated using simplified process representations. The model successfully predicts throughflow temperatures and highlights the dominant role of throughflow advection and the influence of snow cover on stream thermal regimes during high flow periods and rain-on-snow events.

The Western Boreal Plain of North Central Alberta comprises a mosaic of wetlands and aspen (Populus tremuloides) dominated uplands where precipitation (P) is normally exceeded by evapotranspiration (ET). As such these systems are highly susceptible to the climatic variability that may upset the balance between P and ET. Above canopy evapotranspiration (ETC) and understory evapotranspiration (ETB) were examined using the eddy covariance technique situated at 25.5 m (7.5 m above tree crown) and 4.0 m above the ground surface, respectively. During the peak period of the growing seasons (green periods), ETC averaged 3.08 mm d−1 and 3.45 mm d−1 in 2005 and 2006, respectively, while ETB averaged 1.56 mm d−1 and 1.95 mm d−1. Early in the growing season, ETB was equal to or greater than ETC once understory development had occurred. However, upon tree crown growth, ETB was lessened due to a reduction in available energy. ETB ranged from 42 to 56% of ETC over the remainder of the snow-free seasons. Vapour pressure deficit (VPD) and soil moisture (θ) displayed strong controls on both ETC and ETB. ETC responded to precipitation events as the developed tree crown intercepted and held available water which contributed to peak ETC following precipitation events >10 mm. While both ETC and ETB were shown to respond to VPD, soil moisture in the rooting zone is shown to be the strongest control regardless of atmospheric demand. Further, soil moisture and tension data suggest that rooting zone soil moisture is controlled by the redistribution of soil water by the aspen root system. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The stability of northern peatland's carbon (C) store under changing climate is of major concern for the global C cycle. The aquatic export of C from boreal peatlands is recognized as both a critical pathway for the remobilization of peat C stocks as well as a major component of the net ecosystem C balance (NECB). Here, we present a full year characterization of radiocarbon content (14C) of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane (CH4) exported from a boreal peatland catchment coupled with 14C characterization of the catchment's peat profile of the same C species. The age of aquatic C in runoff varied little throughout the year and appeared to be sustained by recently fixed C from the atmosphere (

New research sheds light on the streams that carry carbon away from peatlands with the hope that the data will better inform climate models.

Data from a paired-catchment study in south coastal British Columbia, Canada, were analyzed to assess the thermal effects of clearcut harvesting with no riparian buffer on a fish-bearing headwater stream. The approach used time series of daily mean water temperatures for East Creek (control) and A Creek (treatment), both before and after harvest. Statistical models were developed to predict (a) what the temperatures would have been in the post-harvest period had harvesting not occurred, and (b) what temperatures would have been in the pre-harvest period had harvesting already occurred. The Wisconsin Bioenergetics Model was used to simulate growth of coastal cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki clarki) for the first year following fry emergence using the predicted and observed stream temperatures to generate scenarios representing with-harvest and no-harvest thermal regimes. A Monte Carlo approach was used to quantify the effects of uncertainty associated with the regression models on predicted stream temperature and trout growth. Summer daily mean temperatures in the with-harvest scenario were up to $$5^{\circ}\hbox{C}$$ higher than those for the no-harvest scenario. Harvesting-induced warming reduced growth rates during summer, but increased growth rates during autumn and spring. In the with-harvest scenario, trout were 0.2–2.0 g (absolute weight) smaller throughout the winter period than in the no-harvest scenario. However, the bioenergetic simulations suggest that trout growth may be more sensitive to potential changes in food supply following harvesting than to direct impacts of stream temperature changes.

The objective of this study was to analyse stream temperature variability during summer in relation to both surface heat exchanges and reach-scale hydrology for two hydrogeomorphically distinct reaches. The study focused on a 1·5-km wildfire-disturbed reach of Fishtrap Creek located north of Kamloops, British Columbia. Streamflow measurements and longitudinal surveys of electrical conductivity and water chemistry indicated that the upper 750 m of the study reach was dominated by flow losses. A spring discharged into the stream at 750 m below the upper reach boundary. Below the spring, the stream was neutral to losing on three measurement days, but gained flow on a fourth day that followed a rain event. Continuous stream temperature measurements typically revealed a downstream warming along the upper 750 m of the study reach on summer days, followed by a pronounced cooling associated with the spring, with little downstream change below the spring. Modelled surface energy exchanges were similar over the upper and lower sub-reaches, and thus cannot explain the differences in longitudinal temperature patterns. Application of a Lagrangian stream temperature model provided reasonably accurate predictions for the upper sub-reach. For the lower sub-reach, accurate prediction required specification of concurrent flow losses and gains as a hydrological boundary condition. These findings are consistent with differences in the hydrogeomorphology of the upper and lower sub-reaches. The modelling exercise indicated that substantial errors in predicted stream temperature can occur by representing stream-surface exchange as a reach-averaged one-directional flux computed from differences in streamflow between the upper and lower reach boundaries. Further research should focus on reliable methods for quantifying spatial variations in reach-scale hydrology. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Aerial application of herbicides continues to be a dominant method of vegetation control in Canadian forest management. In this paper, we describe a suite of relatively modern technologies and emphasize their potential for integrated use in optimization of aerial herbicide treatments. The potential is illustrated using several case studies involving fixed-wing applications of glyphosate-based herbicide in the boreal forest region of Ontario, Canada. Results indicate that integration of geographic information systems, differential global positioning, electronic-guidance, on-site meteorological monitoring and remote sensing can be used to effectively plan, enhance application control and provide detailed post-treatment assessment and archival data for herbicide spray programs. SprayAdvisor, a GIS-based decision support system with the capacity to directly integrate all of these elements is briefly described.

Many efforts to model stream temperature by using an energy budget approach have not accounted for view factors in modelling stream surface radiative exchanges, used informal approaches for computing them, or relied on calibration, which is not applicable for prediction at unmonitored sites or for predicting the effects of changes in riparian vegetation. In this paper, equations are derived for calculating view factors on the basis of geometric considerations for streams with and without riparian forest. The solutions can accommodate vegetation overhanging the stream surface. Example calculations illustrate the substantial variability of view factors across the stream width, which has implications for the estimation of view factors from point-scale radiation measurements over the stream surface, and the important influence of overhanging vegetation on view factors for narrow streams. View factors computed from the geometric model agreed well with view factors computed from hemispherical photography for streams ranging from 1 to almost 50 m wide, indicating that the model appears to be reasonably robust to deviations from the simplified geometry assumed by the model. In addition to their use in modelling stream surface energy exchanges, the solutions could also be adapted for application to energy balance and microclimate modelling in linear forest openings, such as seismic lines used in oil and gas exploration. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Stream temperature and riparian microclimate were characterized for a I-5 km wildfire-disturbed reach of Fishtrap Creek, located north of Kamloops, British Columbia. A deterministic net radiation model was developed using hemispherical canopy images coupled with on-site microclimate measurements. Modelled net radiation agreed reasonably with measured net radiation. Air temperature and humidity measured at two locations above the stream, separated by 900 m, were generally similar, whereas wind speed was poorly correlated between the two sites. Modelled net radiation varied considerably along the reach, and measurements at a single location did not provide a reliable estimate of the modelled reach average. During summer, net radiation dominated the surface heat exchanges, particularly because the sensible and latent heat fluxes were normally of opposite sign and thus tended to cancel each other. All surface heat fluxes shifted to negative values in autumn and were of similar magnitude through winter. In March, net radiation became positive, but heat gains were cancelled by sensible and latent heat fluxes, which remained negative. A modelling exercise using three canopy cover scenarios (current, simulated pre- wildfire and simulated complete vegetation removal) showed that net radiation under the standing dead trees was double that modelled for the pre-fire canopy cover. However, post-disturbance standing dead trees reduce daytime net radiation reaching the stream surface by one-third compared with complete vegetation removal. The results of this study have highlighted the need to account for reach-scale spatial variability of energy exchange processes, especially net radiation, when modelling stream energy budgets. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.