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Although the Cambridge Professor of Mental Philosophy and Logic James Ward was once one of Britain's most highly regarded Psychologists and Philosophers, today his work is unjustly neglected. This is because his philosophy is frequently misrepresented as a reactionary anti-naturalistic idealist theism. In this article, I argue, first, that this reading is false, and that by viewing Ward through the lens of pragmatism we obtain a fresh interpretation of his work that highlights the scientific nature of his philosophy and his original and promising theory of ‘evolutionary Kantianism’, with its applications to the philosophy of mind, epistemology, and metaphysics. Second, I show that reading Ward as a pragmatist provides us with (1) a more complex history of the reception of pragmatism at Cambridge at the turn of the twentieth century than the straightforwardly hostile one traditionally told; and (2) a more detailed understanding of the wide range of philosophical problems to which pragmatism was deemed at t...

In 1897, the University of Cambridge finally created a second professorial chair in philosophy, in part at the urging of Henry Sidgwick, the incumbent in the one chair that existed up to that time. The existing chair was identified as the Knightsbridge Professor of Moral Philosophy, and, indeed, Sidgwick was best known for his work in ethics. The new chair was to be named Professor of Mental Philosophy and Logic; Sidgwick not only lobbied for it, he backed it financially as well. Who the candidates were for the position and what happened when the chair was filled provide a commentary on the direction of British philosophy and on wider currents in academe at the end of the Victorian era.The double-barreled scope of the chair's mandate is an issue in itself. There is some evidence that the original plan was to have two new endowed chairs, one in Mental Philosophy and one in Logic.1 Somewhere along the way, financial constraints limited the new expenditure to a single chair, which was given the names of both fields. However, the two fields may not have seemed such strange bedfellows then as they would today. Mental Philosophy, soon to be called Psychology, and later, Philosophy of Mind, concerned itself with mental operations and phenomena of all sorts: ideas, memory, feelings, and the will. As Psychology was not a separate discipline at that time, Mental Philosophy also included studies of sensation and perception and other topics that mostly emerged from physiological studies and later formed the basis of the emerging new independent discipline of experimental psychology.Logic was also a wider term than it has since become, encompassing all forms of reasoning and judgment that might be made by a thinking mind. In the nineteenth century, there had been, as it were, a rebirth of the study of logic among British philosophers. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, British philosophers had firmly turned away from logic as an unnecessary formalization of reason, viewing it as a throwback to medieval scholasticism. Only at Oxford was it actively taught across the board to undergraduates as part of a liberal education. As John Passmore remarks,[Benjamin] Jowett said of logic that it was neither an art nor a science but a dodge. That is a reasonably accurate description of the logic taught-or, rather, learnt parrot-fashion-at an Oxford which used as its text Aldrich's Artis Logicae Compendium (1691), a hotch-potch of technical terms, carefully disposed in mnemonic verses to assist the uninterested powers of recollection of the undergraduate, for whom logic was, until 1831, a compulsory subject.2But a revival was underway, beginning with Richard Whately's Elements of Logic in 1826, which defended the Aristotelian syllogism as a necessary mental process that takes place in all correct reasoning. Whately's defense of traditional logic brought the subject to life again. John Stuart Mill then brought it to center stage with his System of Logic in 1843. Mill saw logic as an investigative tool for the analysis of all philosophical issues. All empirical knowledge of the external world was to be gained through a process of inductive logic. William Whewell, the Knightsbridge Professor from 1838 to 1855, had published his History of the Inductive Sciences in 1837 and his Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences in 1840. Whewell's subject matter was the natural sciences. Mill extended induction to be the basis of the social sciences as well. He disagreed with Whewell on many points and as a result started a lively debate and re-examination of the nature, scope, and methods of logic. These were the years when the social sciences were just coming into their own, seeking a foundation as respectable as the natural sciences. Anything that could help to clarify their methods would be of great interest.There was another aspect of logic that made it of particular interest in these years: the vitalism-reductionism debate over whether life was essentially reducible to the laws of chemistry and physics. …

Seismic anisotropy in the lowermost mantle is thought to be caused by the non-random alignment of anisotropic crystals from texturing from the mantle flowfield. Therefore, seismic anisotropy observations are commonly interpreted in the context of mantle flow. It is unclear, however, how much of an influence the history of mantle convection has on lowermost mantle seismic anisotropy and whether the present-day flowfield is sufficient for interpretation. We investigate this by comparing the predicted anisotropy from an Earth-like mantle convection model, which includes plate motion histories from 600 Ma and a Rayleigh number of approximately 108. Therefore, these models should contain structures on similar length scales and in similar locations to the Earth. We create maps of anisotropy 50 km above the CMB using the present-day flowfield in one case and allowing the flowfield to change with time in another. For each point, we model the texture development of 500 post-perovskite crystals on their journey through the mantle to the location of interest. We then use single-crystal elastic constants to compute the full elastic tensor from the texture. To investigate what influences material properties have on the memory of mantle texture, we use three different deformation systems where we vary how easily texture can develop. We compare the two maps by taking the difference between radial anisotropy parameters ξ = VSH2/VSV2 and φ = VPV/VPH as this is what is often analysed from seismic tomography. We also present the difference in the final elastic tensors at each location because observations such as from shear wave splitting will be sensitive to more of the full elastic tensor. We find that no matter the deformation model, some regions show very different radial anisotropy strength (>10 % difference). Outside of these regions, there is little effect of a time-varying flowfield (1 % difference). We find a similar pattern when comparing the full elastic tensors, though most regions do show some small differences. Comparing the most complex paths and quantifying the memory of the mantle shows varying results depending on the deformation models of post-perovskite and the flowfield sampled. Assuming an easy-to-deform material, the memory of the mantle was approximately 10 Ma along some paths. However, along other paths, the final texture is sensitive to flow it sampled at 125 Ma. These results show that, while a time-varying flowfield makes a significant difference along complex paths with difficult-to-texture minerals, a time-varying flowfield produces similar results to those when assuming the present-day flowfield. This work represents progress toward an understanding of the relationship between lower mantle seismic anisotropy and mantle convection.

Glacier meltwater supplies a significant amount of silicon (Si) and iron (Fe) sourced from weathered bedrock to downstream ecosystems. However, the extent to which these essential nutrients reach the ocean is regulated by the processes occurring within fjords, which act as conduits from glacial rivers and subglacial discharge and the ocean. One key – but understudied – component of biogeochemistry within fjords is benthic cycling, especially in regions of rapid deposition of reactive particulates at fjord heads. Here, we explore the benthic cycling of Si and Fe at four Patagonian fjord heads through geochemical analyses of sediment pore waters, including stable Si and Fe isotopes (δ30Si and δ56Fe respectively), and novel reaction-transport modelling for Si. A high diffusive flux of dissolved Fe from the fjord sediments compared to open ocean sediments is supported by both reductive and non-reductive dissolution of glacially-sourced reactive Fe phases, as reflected by the range of pore water stable Fe isotopes (δ56Fe from -2.7 to +0.8‰). In contrast, the diffusive flux of dissolved Si from the fjord sediments is relatively low. High pore water δ30Si (up to +3.3‰) observed near the Fe(II)-Fe(III) redox boundary is likely associated with the removal of dissolved Si by Fe(III) mineral phases, which, together with high sedimentation rates, contribute to the low diffusive flux of Si at the sampled sites. Our results suggest that early diagenesis promotes the release of dissolved Fe but suppresses the release of dissolved Si at glaciated fjord heads. The redox sensitive coupling of Si and Fe has significant implications for our understanding of how essential nutrients are transport along fjord systems.

Anaerobic digestion (AD) can be used as a stand-alone process or integrated as part of a larger biorefining process to produce biofuels, biochemicals and fertiliser, and has the potential to play a central role in the emerging circular bioeconomy (CBE). Agricultural residues, such as animal slurry, straw, and grass silage, represent an important resource and have a huge potential to boost biogas and methane yields. Under the CBE concept, there is a need to assess the long-term impact and investigate the potential accumulation of specific unwanted substances. Thus, a comprehensive literature review to summarise the benefits and environmental impacts of using agricultural residues for AD is needed. This review analyses the benefits and potential adverse effects related to developing biogas-centred CBE. The identified potential risks/challenges for developing biogas CBE include GHG emission, nutrient management, pollutants, etc. In general, the environmental risks are highly dependent on the input feedstocks and resulting digestate. Integrated treatment processes should be developed as these could both minimise risks and improve the economic perspective.

First Nations people who use methamphetamine are overrepresented in regional and remote Australia and more likely to turn to family for support. This can place strain on families. The support needs of family members of individuals using methamphetamine are poorly understood.We conducted 19 focus groups and seven interviews with mostly First Nations community, family members and service providers. In total, 147 participants across six sites participated as part of a larger study investigating First Nations perspectives of how to address methamphetamine use and associated harms. We applied a social and emotional wellbeing framework to examine support needs and role of family in mitigating methamphetamine harms.Findings highlighted the importance of families in providing support to people using methamphetamine and in reducing associated harms, often without external support. The support provided encompassed practical, social, emotional, financial, access to services and maintaining cultural connection. Providing support took a toll on family and negatively impacted their own social and emotional wellbeing.First Nations families play an important and under-recognised role in reducing methamphetamine-related harms and greater efforts are required to support them. Professional resources are needed to deal with impacts of methamphetamine on families; these should be pragmatic, accessible, targeted and culturally appropriate. Support for families and communities should be developed using the social and emotional wellbeing framework that recognises wellbeing and healing as intrinsically connected to holistic health, kinship, community, culture and ancestry, and socioeconomic and historical influences on peoples' lives.

This study explored the barriers and facilitators to hepatitis C virus (HCV) treatment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in rural South Australia as viewed from a healthcare provider perspective in the era of direct acting antivirals (DAAs). Phase 1 was a qualitative systematic review examining the barriers and enablers to diagnosis and treatment amongst Indigenous peoples living with HCV worldwide. Phase 2 was a qualitative descriptive study with healthcare workers from six de-identified rural and regional Aboriginal Community-Controlled Health Services in South Australia. The results from both methods were integrated at the analysis phase to understand how HCV treatment could be improved for rural Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Five main themes emerged: the importance of HCV education, recognizing competing social and cultural demands, the impact of holistic care delivery and client experience, the effect of internal barriers, and overlapping stigma, discrimination, and shame determine how Indigenous peoples navigate the healthcare system and their decision to engage in HCV care. Continued efforts to facilitate the uptake of DAA medications by Aboriginal and Torres Strait peoples in rural areas should utilize a multifaceted approach incorporating education to community and cultural awareness to reduce stigma and discrimination.

The anaerobic batch digestion of freeze-dried and ground (< 1.5 mm) maize silage, wheat straw, cattle manure, pig manure, and cellulose filter paper was investigated with substrates placed in polyester filter bags. Gas production dynamics of bagged and non-bagged substrates were compared. By using batch bottles running in parallel with those used for gas measurement, substrates could be sampled over time and various parameters measured for both substrate and bulk liquid. The bags allowed an immediate mass loss into the bulk liquid with some substrates and a generally lower rate of gas production. This method requires refinement but has potential for the study of the dynamics of substrate degradation during anaerobic digestion.

Objective: To quantify the prevalence of known health‐related risk factors for severe COVID‐19 illness among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults, and their relationship with social determinants. Methods: Weighted cross‐sectional analysis of the 2018‐19 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey; Odds Ratios for cumulative risk count category (0, 1, or ≥2 health‐related risk factors) by social factors calculated using ordered logistic regression. Results: Of the adult population, 42.9%(95%CI:40.6,45.2) had none of the examined health‐related risk factors; 38.9%(36.6,41.1) had 1, and 18.2%(16.7,19.7) had ≥2. Adults experiencing relative advantage across social indicators had significantly lower cumulative risk counts, with 30‐70% lower odds of being in a higher risk category. Conclusions: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples must continue to be recognised as a priority population in all stages of pandemic preparedness and response as they have disproportionate exposure to social factors associated with risk of severe COVID‐19 illness. Indigeneity itself is not a ‘risk’ factor and must be viewed in the wider context of inequities that impact health Implications for public health: Multi‐sectoral responses are required to improve health during and after the COVID‐19 pandemic that: enable self‐determination; improve incomes, safety, food security and culturally‐safe healthcare; and address discrimination and trauma.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (hereafter Aboriginal) people are a priority population for HIV care in Australia; however, no HIV cascade exists for this population. We developed annual HIV cascades for 2010-2017 specific to Aboriginal peoples. By 2017, an estimated 595 Aboriginal people were living with HIV (PLWH); however, 14% remained undiagnosed. Cascade steps below global targets were: PLWH aware of their diagnosis (86%), and retention in care (81% of those who had received any care in previous two years in a sentinel network of clinics). For people retained in care, treatment outcomes surpassed global targets (92% receiving treatment, 93% viral suppression). Increases occurred across all HIV cascade steps over time; however, the least improvement was for retention in care, while the greatest improvement was achieving viral suppression. The HIV cascade for Aboriginal peoples highlights both gaps and strengths in the Australian HIV care system, and importantly highlights where potential interventions may be required to achieve the global UNAIDS targets.

Unprecedented and dramatic transformations are occurring in the Arctic in response to climate change, but academic, public, and political discourse has disproportionately focussed on the most visible and direct aspects of change, including sea ice melt, permafrost thaw, the fate of charismatic megafauna, and the expansion of fisheries. Such narratives disregard the importance of less visible and indirect processes and, in particular, miss the substantive contribution of the shelf seafloor in regulating nutrients and sequestering carbon. Here, we summarise the biogeochemical functioning of the Arctic shelf seafloor before considering how climate change and regional adjustments to human activities may alter its biogeochemical and ecological dynamics, including ecosystem function, carbon burial, or nutrient recycling. We highlight the importance of the Arctic benthic system in mitigating climatic and anthropogenic change and, with a focus on the Barents Sea, offer some observations and our perspectives on future management and policy.

Continent-scale observations of seismic phenomena have provided multi-scale constraints of the Earth’s interior. Of those analysed, array-based observations of slowness vector properties (backazimuth and horizontal slowness) and multipathing have yet to be made on a continental scale. Slowness vector measurements give inferences on mantle heterogeneity properties such as velocity perturbation, velocity gradient strength and quantify their effect on the wavefield. Multipathing is a consequence of waves interacting with strong velocity gradients resulting in two arrivals that arrive with different slowness vector properties and times. The mantle structure beneath the contiguous Unites States has been thoroughly analysed by seismic studies and is data-rich, making it an excellent testing ground to analyse mantle structure with our approach and compare with other techniques. We apply an automated array-analysis technique to an SKS dataset to create the first continent-scale dataset of multipathing and slowness vector measurements. We analyse the divergence of the slowness vector deviation field to highlight seismically slow and fast regions in our data. Our results resolve several slow mantle anomalies beneath Yellowstone, the Appalachian mountains and fast anomalies throughout the mantle. Many of the anomalies cause multipathing in frequency bands 0.15–0.30 and 0.20–0.40 Hz which suggests velocity transitions over at most 500 km exist. Comparing our observations to synthetics created from tomography models, we find model NA13 \citeA{bedle_continental_2021} fits our data best but differences still remain. We therefore suggest slowness vector measurements should be used as an additional constraint in tomographic inversions and will lead to better-resolved models of the mantle.

The uptake of HIV prevention services is lower among youth than adults in sub-Saharan Africa. Existing youth livelihood trainings offer a potential entry point to HIV prevention services. We determined feasibility and preliminary effectiveness of integrating HIV prevention into youth clubs implementing an empowerment and livelihood for adolescents (ELA) intervention in rural Uganda. Staff conducted community mobilization for youth (15-24 years) over one month. Clubs met (3×/week) over six months, with local peer mentors trained to teach life-skills and sexual/reproductive health education. We integrated mentor-led education on HIV prevention, including pre- and post-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP/PEP). Clubs offered on-site HIV testing, a field trip to a local clinic and PrEP referrals after one month and six months. Surveys were conducted at baseline and six months. Forty-two participants (24 adolescent girls/young women (AGYW) and 18 adolescent boys/young men (ABYM)) joined the clubs. At baseline, no participants accepted referral for PrEP, whereas 5/18 (28%) sexually active, HIV-negative AGYW requested PrEP referral at follow-up. One ABYM requested PEP referral. Integration of HIV prevention services into an established ELA curriculum at mentor-led youth clubs in rural Uganda was feasible. PrEP uptake increased among sexually active AGYW. Evaluation of this approach for HIV prevention among youth merits further study.

To provide the latest evidence for future research and practice, this study critically reviewed Indigenous peoples’ cancer care experiences in the Australian healthcare system from the patient’s point of view. After searching PubMed, CINAHL and Scopus databases, twenty-three qualitative studies were included in this review. The inductive approach was used for analysing qualitative data on cancer care experience in primary, tertiary and transitional care between systems. Three main themes were found in healthcare services from Indigenous cancer care experiences: communication, cultural safety, and access to services. Communication was an important theme for all healthcare systems, including language and literacy, understanding of cancer care pathways and hospital environment, and lack of information. Cultural safety was related to trust in the system, privacy, and racism. Access to health services was the main concern in transitional care between healthcare systems. While some challenges will need long-term and collective efforts, such as institutional racism as a downstream effect of colonisation, cultural training for healthcare providers and increasing the volume of the Indigenous workforce, such as Indigenous Liaison Officers or Indigenous Care Coordinators, could effectively address this inequity issue for Indigenous people with cancer in Australia in a timely manner.

Until the recent death in Dubbo of an Aboriginal man, there have been no deaths from Covid 19 in Australia. The extraordinary success of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations in controlling the effects of this pandemic has been a global role model. Until early 2021, in spite of their high risk status, dispersed population and fear of health services due to racism, Indigenous outcomes were better than those for non-Indigenous. Aboriginal health leaders at every level brought in worlds best practices and applied them in all urban, rural and remote locations. Instead of the many hundreds of cases, hospitalisation and deaths expected, there were only 150 cases nationwide with15% hospitalised but no one in ICU and no deaths. This result is a complete reversal of the gap and was due to the outstanding Indigenous leadership, that governments at all levels listened to Aboriginal wisdom and that control was handed to those who knew what to do. This result is not only evidence for why a Voice enshrined in the Constitution would work, it heralds a new way of working with Aboriginal people in Australia. This viewpoint makes the case for a different model to engage and empower First Nations to really close the gap - themselves.

Objective: To describe the methods of recruitment and demographic results of an online sexual health survey using social networking sites (SNS) to recruit people aged 16–29 years in the state of South Australia (SA) during 2019. Methods: A crosssectional online survey titled ‘Let's Talk About It’ using SNS (Facebook and Instagram) was administered between July and August 2019, targeting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non‐Indigenous young people. The survey comprised questions on demographics information, sexual health knowledge, behaviours and healthcare access. Results: During the data collection period, the study team closely monitored the demographics of participants and adjusted SNS messaging through paid advertising to increase the recruitment of under‐represented population groups, especially Aboriginal people, males and regional and remote residents of SA. A total of 2,724 people accessed the survey predominately via Facebook during a six‐week period between July and August 2019; 2,380 people were eligible and included in the analysis. Conclusions and implications for public health: Even though SNS have been used previously in recruitment for sexual health issues, small adjustments to the study during recruitment were specifically made to include under‐represented populations in the final study. Using SNS is an effective method for recruiting survey participants; during recruitment phases, additional strategies may be required to be inclusive of diverse and under‐represented populations.

Urban agriculture requires sustainable solutions to secure its water resources. A wicking bed (WB) is a simple system that could provide high yield and water use efficiency. This single trial glasshouse study compares the performance of a WB and surface irrigation (SI) system for growing tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L.) using fresh (FW) and recycled water (RW). The performance of both treatments was compared when irrigating 2 days per week and for two environmental conditions (indoor and outdoor). In addition, the reliability of using FW and RW at a 7-day irrigation interval was studied for WBs alone. Results showed that the irrigation water use efficiency (kg/m3) and the yield (kg/plant) are significantly different only between WB (FW) and SI (RW) considering all conditions. The accumulation of salts and the sodium absorption ratio (SAR) were high in the surface layer of WBs compared to SI. This indicates that the use of RW affects the level of salinity and sodicity in soil, which in turn may decrease the yield. However, WBs perform similar to, if not better than, SI with FW. The WBs show the advantage of reducing the leachate of nutrients into groundwater, compared to SI systems. Further research into irrigation and nutrient management in WBs to reduce the effect of salinity at the surface is recommended to increase the efficiency of the system.

Design, delivery and improvement processes in healthcare is of great challenge due to increasing pressures on healthcare systems alongside inherent complexities, resulting in limited benefits or unforeseen consequences. A recent Systems Approach framework has aimed at responding to the calls about implementing a more holistic approach. Though being an approach in its own right that can iteratively and systematically structure, guide, and/or facilitate design and improvement projects in healthcare, it can also augment existing approaches that have already place in healthcare designers’ and improvement practitioners’ agendas. Thus, the objective of this paper is to compare and contrast the questions, activities, and tools of the Systems Approach with processes of other major improvement approaches in healthcare to demonstrate their coverages, overlaps, and extended and new opportunities to pursue in the light of the Systems Approach., NA

We entered upon the work of last session under the heavy cloud occasioned by the loss of Mr. F. H. Bradley, who died only a few days before its opening at the age of seventy-eight; and, in the midst of that session, on March 4th, Professor James Ward passed away at the ripe age of eighty-two years. Thus the two foremost English philosophers of our time have been removed from our midst; and it seems fitting that, in commencing the duties of this new session, I should say something about their contributions to our common pursuit, and try to indicate what we owe to them who have been for so long the leaders of philosophical research in this country.

Aims The aim of this study was to analyse the necessity of routine group and saves (G+S) in patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomies and to establish whether it would be safe to cease this practice. In doing so, we aim to reduce financial burden and workload, whilst maintaining safe clinical outcomes. Methods This was a retrospective study into all consecutive patients that underwent an elective or emergency laparoscopic cholecystectomy in Royal Hampshire County Hospital (RHCH) from May 2019 - May 2021. IT systems and clinical notes were analysed to identify the quantity of pre-operative G+S samples sent, and the proportion of patients that required a postoperative blood transfusion. Results Over 24 months, 427 laparoscopic cholecystectomies were performed in RHCH, 70% of which were elective. In total, 682 G+S samples were processed (1.6/patient), resulting in a cost of £16504. Two patients received a postoperative blood transfusion (0.5%). One of these patients presented with an UGI bleed, whilst the other presented with a haemolytic crisis. They were therefore predictable, pre-operative conditions, for which a post-operative transfusion had been planned prior to surgery. Conclusion In conclusion, this study suggests that performing routine G+S for all laparoscopic cholecystectomy patients has created an unnecessary workload and financial burden on this small DGH. Furthermore, during this 24 months, this practice had no clinical advantage. We therefore advise that sending pre-operative G+S samples should be a clinical decision made on a case by case basis, rather than a default for all patients.

Background First Nations Peoples of Australia are disproportionally affected by hepatitis C (HCV) infection. Through a prospective study we evaluated the outcome of direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy among First Nations Peoples with HCV infection. Methods Adults who initiated DAA therapy at one of 26 hospitals across Australia, 2016–2019 were included in the study. Clinical data were obtained from medical records and the Pharmaceutical and Medicare Benefits Schemes. Outcomes included sustained virologic response (SVR) and loss to follow-up (LTFU). A multivariable analysis assessed factors associated with LTFU. Results Compared to non-Indigenous Australians (n = 3206), First Nations Peoples (n = 89) were younger (p p = 0.002) and in regional/remote areas (p p = 0.022). Of 2910 patients with follow-up data, both groups had high SVR rates (95.3% of First Nations Peoples vs. 93.2% of non-Indigenous patients; p = 0.51) and ‘good’ adherence (90.0% vs. 86.9%, respectively; p = 0.43). However, 28.1% of First Nations Peoples were LTFU vs. 11.2% of non-Indigenous patients (p Conclusions Our data showed that First Nations Peoples have an equivalent HCV cure rate, but higher rates of LTFU. Better strategies to increase engagement of First Nations Peoples with HCV care are needed.

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ObjectiveAboriginal women living in remote Australia experience a high burden of both chlamydia and gonorrhoea infections and disproportionately high rates of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). We estimated for the first time the fraction of PID attributable to these infections in young Aboriginal women living in these settings.MethodsUsing published data from two large Australian studies (2002–2013; 2010–2014), we calculated the fraction of emergency department presentations and hospitalisations for PID attributable to chlamydia and/or gonorrhoea infection in Aboriginal women aged 16–29 years living in remote Australia. We used a Monte Carlo simulation to estimate the mean and 95% CIs for the assumed prevalence and population attributable fractions for PID for infection stratifications (chlamydia only, gonorrhoea only and dual infection) as well as for any infection (chlamydia and/or gonorrhoea). Additional outputs were calculated for chlamydia infection with/without gonorrhoea coinfection, and vice versa.ResultsThe prevalence of chlamydia only was 12.9% (95% CI: 11.6% to 14.2%), gonorrhoea only was 7.8% (95% CI: 6.6% to 8.9%) and dual infection was 6.5% (95% CI: 5.8% to 7.2%); rate ratios of PID were 1.9 (95% CI: 1.5 to 2.3), 5.2 (95% CI: 4.3 to 6.4) and 4.6 (95% CI: 3.8 to 5.5), respectively. The overall fraction of PID attributable to chlamydia and/or gonorrhoea was 40.2% (95% CI: 36.0% to 44.4%); any gonorrhoea was 33.4% (95% CI: 29.2% to 37.8%) and any chlamydia was 20.6% (95% CI: 16.9% to 24.6%).ConclusionOur study demonstrates the importance of calculating the fraction of PID related to chlamydia and gonorrhoea in the local context, demonstrating the major contribution gonorrhoea makes to PID hospitalisations among Australian Aboriginal women living in remote settings. To significantly and sustainably reduce the unacceptable rate of PID in this population, strategies are urgently needed to improve timely testing and treatment and recognition and management of PID in primary care.