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Храмов Ю.О. «ІсторичнафізикаУкраїни»/НАН України, ДУ «Інститутдослідж. наук.-техн. потенціалу та історії науки ім. Г.М.ДоброваНАН України».– К.: Фенікс,2020.– 484с.

Apresenta-se aqui a resenha do livro “História da Física no Recife”, recentemente publicado pela Companhia Editora de Pernambuco. Ao longo dos seus sete capítulos, são apresentados os antecedentes históricos da ciência em Pernambuco; o papel de Luiz Freire no desenvolvimento da física em Pernambuco; os primórdios da criação do DF-UFPE e sua evolução desde sua criação em 1971. Here is a review of the book “History of Physics in Recife”, recently published by Companhia Editora de Pernambuco. Throughout its seven chapters, are presented the historical antecedents of science in Pernambuco; Luiz Freire’s role in the development of physics in Pernambuco; the beginnings of the creation of DF-UFPE and its evolution since its creation in 1971.

We present a translation of the 1933 paper by R. F\"urth in which a profound analogy between quantum fluctuations and Brownian motion is pointed out. This paper opened in some sense the way to the stochastic methods of quantization developed almost 30 years later by Edward Nelson and others., Comment: 23 pages, 4 figures

Resumo: Os experimentos que foram realizados para buscar fenômenos devidos ao movimento da Terra em relação ao éter luminífero, até 1878, procuravam efeitos de primeira ordem em v/c. A partir de uma sugestão apresentada por Maxwell nesse ano, iniciou-se uma segunda fase de pesquisas, levando em conta efeitos de segunda ordem em v/c – como os experimentos interferométricos de Michelson de 1881, de Michelson e Morley em 1887 e os de Morley e Miller em 1904-1905. Este artigo estuda esse período histórico, analisando principalmente os trabalhos experimentais desenvolvidos no período e as dificuldades encontradas para explicar os resultados utilizando-se as teorias do éter luminífero de Fresnel e de Stokes. Palavras-chave: história da física; história da óptica; teorias sobre o éter.

An outline of the development of physics in Russia is given, with an emphasis on Russian specifics. The conflict between “academic” and “university” physics in Stalin's times is presented somewhat differently, in comparison with the available literature. The term “mystical atheism” was introduced to characterize the philosophical basis of physics of the twentieth century. A brief assessment of the state of science and education in Russia after 1991 is presented.

This thesis employs a close reading of archival and published sources to explore the origins of colour vision science in 19th century Britain. By drawing attention to wide ranging dialogues and disagreements between diverse figures with different visions of colour, including physicists David Brewster, James Clerk Maxwell, and Lord Rayleigh, politician and philologist William Gladstone, ophthalmologists Frederick Edridge-Green and Robert Carter, and anthropologist W.H.R Rivers, I show that 19th century colour vision science was not narrowly confined to the quantification, measurement, and classification of colours. It was instead shaped by deeper metaphysical questions and wider political concerns. These questions and concerns included the implications of natural law, free-will, and materialism for scientific understandings of reality, the limits of Darwinian understandings of humanity, the legitimacy of scientific experts and institutions in determining public policy, and the history, future, and advancement of civilization. I argue that the widespread use of spinning discs as an experimental research technology, promoted by Brewster and Maxwell, combined with the mainstream acceptance of Maxwell’s theoretical model of ‘coterminal response curves’, generated conflicts between competing understandings of perception, vision, and colour in the second half of the 19th century. These conflicts stemmed from the establishment of new conventions, inspired by Maxwell’s work, which held that scientists should maintain a practical and analytical distance from their own visual experiences, that the visual experiences of test subjects should be treated as untrustworthy phenomena in need of further analysis, and that the meaning of subjective experiences are contained within, and revealed by, mathematical models that accord with a rational understanding of the physical world. These practical and metaphysical approaches to the meaning of human experience did not end with the conflicts they generated in the second half of the 19th century but continue to bear on broader contemporary understandings of truth and illusion in scientific practice and popular imagination., Cambridge Trust

This essay examines continuities between Franklin’s electrical science and his moralist arguments in order to propose that Franklinist natural philosophy was teleological, calling upon hypothetical purposes in nature, and that this teleology can explain its extraordinary popularity in France.

Modern color science finds its birth in the middle of the nineteenth century. Among the chief architects of the new color theory, the name of the polymath Hermann von Helmholtz stands out. A keen experimenter and profound expert of the latest developments of the fields of physiological optics, psychophysics, and geometry, he exploited his transdisciplinary knowledge to define the first non-Euclidean line element in color space, i.e., a three-dimensional mathematical model used to describe color differences in terms of color distances. Considered as the first step toward a metrically significant model of color space, his work inaugurated researches on higher color metrics, which describes how distance in the color space translates into perceptual difference. This paper focuses on the development of Helmholtz’s mathematical derivation of the line element. Starting from the first experimental evidence which opened the door to his reflections about the geometry of color space, it will be highlighted the pivotal role played by the studies conducted by his assistants in Berlin, which provided precious material for the elaboration of the final model proposed by Helmholtz in three papers published between 1891 and 1892. Although fallen into oblivion for about three decades, Helmholtz’s masterful work was rediscovered by Schrödinger and, since the 1920s, it has provided the basis for all subsequent studies on the geometry of color spaces up to the present time.

This interdisciplinary thesis (History of Physics/Mathematics, Epistemology of Science, Nature of Science, Teaching Science) is part of the historical study and teaching of classical physics (kinematics and dynamics) and deals with the case study of the history of the discovery of the laws of falling bodies and the motion of the projectile. The narrative I have reconstructed in my thesis portrays a summary of the main historical developments in the study of the subject from the time of Aristotle to Galileo. My analysis takes into account the most recent critical studies and original manuscripts and has several elements of originality both in the reconstruction of the way in which Galileo's experiments were carried out (e.g. the role assigned to the pendulum for the measurement of time) and in the organic connection between them that I have highlighted. The synthesis I produced has included both theoretical and experimental elements with the little-known contributions of scholars who in some respects anticipated Galileo and who deserve to be studied more closely. This serves to highlight how scientific progress is always the result of the efforts of a community of scholars in addition to the undeniable contributions of the great personalities who, with their intuition and creativity, have made the history of science. Analysing the works of these scientists, situating their studies and choices in the historical period in which they lived ̶ to form a detailed synoptic picture ̶ has the advantage of helping us understand the choices that scientists made and humanise science by linking it to the ethics and values that inspired them. In general, the study of the context, the experimental conditions present at the time of the experiments, the mathematics that could be used, and the particular relationships between science and society have highlighted the importance of considering the Nature of Science framework as the best candidate for the teaching-learning of science. The novelty and originality of this work lies precisely in the area of ''history of science and teaching'' because it constitutes an example in which this richness has been implemented in a physics teaching path, held in curricular hours, whose outcome and impact on the interest of students (from the first three years of the Italian Liceo scientifico) have been carefully examined. Naturally, in designing the educational path I took into account the most modern physics teaching theories (etc., learning by doing, inquiry-based learning), also drawing on my thirty years' experience of teaching in high school. The experimentation carried out, which involved eight classes in the first three years of the Liceo scientifico, was also important in defining the curriculum and the subdivision of the learning topics in the various years of study, based on the results obtained regarding the interest and learning difficulties shown by the students. An important aspect, however, has been successfully reproducing with the students, in laboratories and school classrooms, the famous experiments performed by Galileo that sanctioned the birth of the experimental method and that have been the subject of criticism and discussion from the time of the publication of Galileo's Discorsi to the present day.; Cette thèse interdisciplinaire (histoire de la physique/mathématiques, épistémologie des sciences, 'Nature of Science' sciences, enseignement des sciences) s'inscrit dans le cadre de l'étude historique et de l'enseignement de la physique classique (cinématique et dynamique) et traite de l'étude de cas de l'histoire de la découverte des lois de la chute des corps et du mouvement du projectile. Le narratif que j'ai reconstruit dans ma thèse dépeint un résumé des principaux développements historiques dans l'étude du sujet depuis l'époque d'Aristote jusqu'à Galilée. Mon analyse tient également compte des études critiques les plus récentes et des manuscrits originaux et comporte plusieurs éléments d'originalité tant dans la reconstitution de la manière dont les expériences de Galilée ont été réalisées (e.g., le rôle attribué au pendule pour la mesure du temps) que dans le lien organique entre elles que j'ai mis en évidence. La synthèse que j'ai réalisée a inclus des éléments théoriques et expérimentaux avec les contributions peu connues de savants qui, à certains égards, ont anticipé Galilée et qui méritent d'être étudiés de plus près. Cela permet de souligner comment le progrès scientifique est toujours le résultat des efforts d'une communauté de savants en plus des contributions indéniables des grandes personnalités qui, avec leur intuition et leur créativité, ont fait l'histoire des sciences. Analyser les travaux de ces scientifiques, en situant leurs études et leurs choix dans la période historique dans laquelle ils ont vécu ̶ pour former un tableau synoptique détaillé ̶ a l'avantage de nous aider à comprendre les choix que les scientifiques ont faits et à humaniser la science en la reliant à l'éthique et aux valeurs qui les ont inspirés. En général, l'étude du contexte, des conditions expérimentales présentes à l'époque des expériences, des mathématiques qui pouvaient être utilisées et des relations particulières entre la science et la société ont mis en évidence l'importance de considérer le cadre de la Nature de la science comme le meilleur candidat pour l'enseignement-apprentissage de la science. La nouveauté et l'originalité de ce travail se situent précisément dans le domaine de l' ''histoire des sciences et enseignement'' car il constitue un exemple dans lequel cette richesse a été mise en œuvre dans un parcours d'enseignement de la physique, tenu en heures de cours, dont le résultat et l'impact sur l'intérêt des étudiants (des trois premières années du Liceo scientifico en Italie) ont été soigneusement examinés. Naturellement, lors de la conception du parcours didactique-pédagogique, j'ai tenu compte des théories d'enseignement de la physique les plus modernes (e.g., apprentissage/pratique enseignant, apprentissage basé sur l'enquête/analyse), en m'appuyant également sur mon expérience de trente ans d'enseignement au lycée. L'expérimentation réalisée, qui a concerné huit classes des trois premières années du Liceo scientifico, a également été importante pour définir le programme et la subdivision des thèmes d'apprentissage dans les différentes années d'étude, sur la base des résultats obtenus concernant l'intérêt et les difficultés d'apprentissage manifestés par les élèves. Un aspect important, cependant, a été de réussir à reproduire avec les étudiants, dans les laboratoires et les salles de classe, les célèbres expériences réalisées par Galilée qui ont sanctionné la naissance de la méthode expérimentale et qui ont fait l'objet de critiques et de discussions depuis la publication des Discorsi de Galilée jusqu'à aujourd'hui.

International audience; Cet article étudie la manière dont la Revue d'Histoire des sciences s'est rapportée à la Science classique dans les 75 premières années de son existence. L'accent est mis sur les grandes orientations méthodologiques, telles qu'elles se dessinent dans les premières décennies. Mots-clés : Histoire des mathématiques ; histoire de la physique ; Summary : This article studies the way in which the Revue d'Histoire des Sciences related to Classical Science in the first 75 years of its existence. The focus is on the major methodological orientations, as they emerged in the first decades.

The quality of education can be improved by developing learning methods, curriculum development, and learning media development. One of them is learning media in the form of comics. This research aims to develop physics comics and analyze the validity of learning media of physics comics on the historical material of atomic development. The research was conducted using the R&D research model (Research and Development) with the 4-D model (Define-Design-Develop-Disseminate). Based on the stages, obtained learning media products that were declared eligible after validation by two high school physics teachers and an expert lecturer gained the average validity in the media component of 90.0%, the display of 89.2%, the material by 90.7%, and the language by 95.4%. In general, the student's responses to the use of physical comic learning media include comic physics can increase motivation in learning (88.6%), students prefer that physics learning uses comic media (88.9%), through comic media, students are introduced to atomic inventors (88.9%), and physics comics can help to understand the historical material of atomic development (83.3%). Based on the study results, learning media of physics comics on the historical material of atomic development deserves to be used in physics. The implication of this study can help other researchers as a reference related to the development of comic physics learning media.

In the continuing spirit of narrowing the gap between the “two cultures,” this essay illustrates, quite literally through representative works of Western art, the striking parallels between the visual arts and the discoveries made during the Scientific Revolution, the period between Copernicus’s 1543 De revolutionibus and Newton’s 1687 Principia when the foundations of modern science swept away the scientific heritage of the ancient and medieval worldviews, a period that, though underrepresented in art–science studies, marked the birth of the modern mind and, indeed, the modern world.

“Heat, Electricity and Magnetism… though very different, agree in some general characters” wrote the natural philosopher John Playfair in 1819 in his influential "Dissertation Second" for the Encyclopaedia Britannica. His essay provides little evidence to support the claim of John Leslie, writing a sequel dissertation in the 1820s, that, “[Electricity’s] close connexion, if not identity, with magnetism, had been long suspected.” Leslie, of course, was writing with the benefit of hindsight, informed by Hans Christian Ørsted’s discovery of the effect of an electric current on a magnetised needle in 1820. After a brief overview of Ørsted's life, I investigate what encyclopaedia articles such as these can tell us about electricity and magnetism in the years leading up to Ørsted’s publication, and immediately afterwards. Publisher PDF

This study investigates whether graduate courses for in-service physics teacher professional development that combine the conceptual history of physics, physics content, and physics education research readings will result in the teachers using the history of science for their own classroom instruction. In a study conducted in the USA, teachers who took such courses reported that their instruction in the history of science resulted in their better understanding of student learning, and a better ability to include the history of physics in their teaching. Ten teachers were selected from the pool of teachers who had participated in the professional development to determine how the self-reported use of the history of science translated into the teachers’ classroom practice. The research questions addressed whether or not the teachers used the history of science in their practice, and if so, how and what obstacles the teachers perceived in using the history of science. The investigation found that all ten teachers used the history of science in their physics classes to better understand their students’ conceptions in physics, to teach about theory change, and to increase student interest. Eight also used history to better communicate physics concepts. All discussed impediments they perceive to more use of history with their students. The professional development described may serve as a model for changing science teachers’ practice with respect to teaching with the history of science.

The long-standing problem of the cosmological constant, described both as “the worst prediction in the history of physics” and by Einstein as his “biggest blunder”, is being tackled with renewed vigour by today’s cosmologists. Rob Lea investigates

In this article, I argue that the interpretation of Kant's a priori in Marburg neo-Kantianism involved a historiographical problem concerning the Platonic interpretation of the history of exact sciences. According to Hermann Cohen, the history of modern science supports the philosophical view initiated by Plato and revived by Kant that ‘the diversity of things has to be dissolved in differences of ideas’ and thus points to the “victory of idealism” over empiricism and materialism. I first examine how Cohen and Paul Natorp tried to confirm this epistemological thesis in their historical research on Plato and modern physics. Then I focus on Cassirer's work, which provides the most extensive realization of this historiographical programme and, I submit, clearly shows the problematic gap between the ‘Platonic’ epistemology of the Marburg school and the historical reality of physics from Galileo to the early twentieth century.

This article about scientific puppets aims to explain or describe the concept of a scientific puppet, how to make a scientific puppet, as well as the implementation and implications of puppet art as a medium of learning physics. In this case, the scientific puppet can be a learning medium for the knowledge of the history of physics scientists to students and students. The preparation of this article uses the type of descriptive qualitative research because as an interpretation and description of the concept of cultural acculturation used for learning physics, the implementation of scientific puppets as a method of learning physics. In this article produces a discussion of the concept of a scientific puppet, a puppet that presents a scientist with an actual picture of the scientist but is shaped in such a way that it is shaped like a puppet. The wayang scientist procedure starts by designing the drawings of the characters in the story to be displayed. The figures that will be used in the puppets are edited to use clothing that suits the setting of the place and atmosphere. After that, cut and placed on used cardboard so that it can be erect and given wood as a mastermind handle. The implementation of the story used is the story of a physicist J Black and JP Joule. In this case, the teacher acts as a puppeteer. The teacher uses the scientific puppet as a visual aid to present physics material through a pre-packed story. The implications of this puppet are interesting and impressive because the material of physics history is easier to understand.

While physics has a rather ahistoric teaching tradition, it is common to include at least anecdotal reference to historical events and actors. These brief remarks on the history are typically distorted. I take issue with the textbook narrative of the historical development of early quantum theory and rectify some of the more severe misrepresentations. This seems to be all the more important, since the history of physics is commonly (and rightly) regarded as a means to foster scientific literacy and a more appropriate understanding of the nature of science (NoS).

Este artigo tem como objetivo investigar a evolução histórica dos conceitos de matéria escura e energia escura, e os conhecimentos existentes sobre estes dois fenômenos, de modo a subsidiar atividades de educação e divulgação científica. A fundamentação teórica para este trabalho foi realizada a partir de uma revisão bibliográfica que permitiu a análise de teses, dissertações, artigos e trabalhos acadêmicos tanto da área de astrofísica, quanto da área de ensino de ciências. A análise bibliográfica realizada envolveu também artigos originais escritos por cientistas como U. Le Verrier, A. Einstein, F. Zwicky, G. Gamow, V. Rubin, S. Perlmutter e A. Riess que estão disponíveis e abertos para serem lidos na internet. Em particular foram investigados o modelo cosmológico padrão, assim como as observações e os dados experimentais existentes. Para colocar em perspectiva os desafios contemporâneos acerca da natureza da matéria escura e da energia escura, são analisados alguns exemplos históricos de dilemas enfrentados no passado pela comunidade científica sobre as órbitas dos planetas Urano e de Mercúrio e acerca da existência de epiciclos, do calórico e do éter luminífero. This article aims to investigate the historical evolution of the concepts of dark matter and dark energy, and the knowledge about these two phenomena, in order to subsidize scientific education and dissemination activities. The theoretical basis for this work was based on a bibliographic review that allowed the analysis of theses, dissertations, articles and academic works both in the area of astrophysics and in the area of science teaching. The bibliographic analysis carried out also involved original papers written by scientists such as U. Le Verrier, A. Einstein, F. Zwicky, G. Gamow, V. Rubin, S. Perlmutter and A. Riess that are available and open to be read on the internet. In particular, the standard cosmological model was investigated, as well as existing observations and experimental data. To put the contemporary challenges about the nature of dark matter and dark energy in perspective, some historical examples of dilemmas faced in the past by the scientific community about the orbits of the planets Uranus and Mercury and about the existence of epicycles, caloric and luminiferous ether.

In 1905, Einstein carried out his first derivation of the mass-energy equivalence by studying in different reference frames the energy balance of a body emitting electromagnetic radiation and assuming special relativity as a prerequisite. In this paper, we prove that a general mass-energy relationship can be derived solely from very basic assumptions, which are the same made in Einstein's first derivation but completely neglecting special relativity. The general mass-energy relationship turns to a mass-energy equivalence when is applied to the case of a body emitting energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. Our main result is that if the core logic behind Einstein's approach is sound, then the essence of the mass-energy equivalence can be derived without special relativity. We believe that our heuristic approach, although not capable of giving the exact mathematical formula for the mass-energy equivalence, may represent a useful addition to the general discussion on the matter at the graduate level. Our finding suggests that the connection between mass and energy is at a deeper level and comes before any full-fledged physical theory., 10 pages, 2 figures

O artigo examina os relatórios das expedições à Guarapari e outras publicações (1956–1967) do Padre Francisco Xavier Roser S.J. com o objetivo de caracterizar sua produção científica em trabalhos de campo em radiação ambiental, bem como identificar sua rede de colaboração. Este trabalho discute os levantamentos radiométricos das áreas com elevada radioatividade de solo, os exames dosimétricos da população local e as medidas de radioatividade atmosférica realizados no litoral sul capixaba. A partir dessas atividades são apresentadas as técnicas, os métodos de investigação empregados pelo grupo de cientistas, reunidos em torno de Roser, os resultados das pesquisas e as colaborações interinstitucionais estabelecidas na realização desse programa de pesquisa. The article describes the reports of expeditions to Guarapari and other publications (1956–1967) written by Father Francisco Xavier Roser S.J. with the aim of characterizing his scientific production on environmental radiation We try to elucidate his scientific network. Our contribution also discusses the radiometric surveys of areas with high soil radioactivity, the dosimetric exams of the local population, and the measurements of atmospheric radioactivity carried out on the south coast of Espírito Santo. Finally, we explain the techniques, the research methods employed by the group of scientists, gathered around Roser, the research results and the inter-institutional collaborations.

A new mathematics, the constructive one, characterizes a singular limit as undecidable. Hence, a singular limit between two theories actually represents a difference between two different kinds of mathematics. This particular situation suggests a mathematical definition of the notion of incommensurability. As a consequence of the resulting incommensurabilities among many couples of theories the foundations of physical theories are pluralist, not only in both epistemological and ontological senses, but also in mathematical sense. Hence since longtime the history of physics is developing along a plurilinear path., 20 pages

Avicenna (Ibn Sina) greatly influenced later medieval thinking about the earth and the cosmos, not only in his own civilization, but also in Hebrew and Latin cultures. The studies presented in this volume discuss the reception of prominent theories by Avicenna from the early 11th century onwards by thinkers like Averroes, Fahraddin ar-Razi, Samuel ibn Tibbon or Albertus Magnus. Among the topics which receive particular attention are the definition and existence of motion and time. Other important topics are covered too, such as Avicenna's theories of vacuum, causality, elements, substantial change, minerals, floods and mountains. It emerges, among other things, that Avicenna inherited to the discussion an acute sense for the epistemological status of natural science and for the mental and concrete existence of its objects. The volume also addresses the philological and historical circumstances of the textual tradition and sheds light on the translators Dominicus Gundisalvi, Avendauth and Alfred of Sareshel in particular. The articles of this volume are presented by scholars who convened in 2013 to discuss their research on the influence of Avicenna's physics and cosmology in the Villa Vigoni, Italy.

Mindful of a stated Project 2061 goal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, emphasizing that “scientific literacy includes seeing the scientific endeavor in the light of cultural and intellectual history,” and in the continuing spirit of narrowing the gap between the “two cultures” by enhancing STEAM awareness and education, this essay illustrates, quite literally through well-known works of Western art, the striking parallels between fundamental themes in physics and the visual arts through history. These connections include: the identification of microcosm–macrocosm analogies in prehistoric proto-science; the beginning of the appreciation in pre-classical antiquity of the lawfulness of nature under the aegis of a Divine Lawgiver; the rise of rationalism and the first theories of the architecture of matter during the so-called “Greek miracle”; the overlapping role of theology’s “handmaiden” during the emblematic medieval Age of Faith; Renaissance renovations and the triumph of the “mechanical universe” as the capstone of the scientific revolution in the early modern period; the influence on physics of the Romantic notion of an underlying unity in all of nature, and the increasing abstraction in both art and physics during the nineteenth century; and, finally, the parallels between twentieth-century art and the physics of relativity and quantum theory, concluding with examples from modern cosmology.

In 1840, James Prescott Joule submitted to the Royal Society a paper describing experimental research on the heat produced by electric currents in metallic conductors, and inferring that the effect was proportional to the resistance of the conductors and to the square of the intensity of the current. Only an abstract of this paper was published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society , although a full paper with a similar title was printed in the Philosophical Magazine in 1841. Several authors have assumed that the content of the 1841 publication was the same as the rejected 1840 paper; however, the unpublished manuscript has been found within the archives of the Royal Society and is published here for the first time, along with a detailed analysis and comparison with the 1841 paper. The unpublished version is much shorter, and is different in certain respects from the published article. A detailed comparison throws light on several shortcomings of the unpublished version. The present work also studies the assessment of Joule's paper by the Royal Society, and elucidates the roles of Peter Roget and Samuel Christie in this connection.

The current activities in detecting neutrinos as carriers of information from far out in our Universe prompt us to look back on the research activities a century ago that led to the discovery of these weakly interacting particles. One of the leading researchers was Lise Meitner, who observed electrons with well-defined energy, besides the continuous energy spectrum emitted in β decay. These electron lines are well understood as radiationless nuclear transitions competing with γ-ray emission. It is proposed to name the electrons resulting out of this so-called internal conversion process after Lise Meitner and Charles D. Ellis. The equivalent process within the electronic (atomic) shell is the Auger effect , competing with X-ray emission. In this context, the radioactive decay of UX1 or 234 Th, well studied a century ago by Lise Meitner and Charles Ellis, is re-visited, and the mono-energetic electrons are ascribed entirely to the internal conversion process.

The Nobel Prize has acted as a surrogate record of invention and discovery throughout the twentieth century. Based on this surrogacy, many claims are made regarding both trends in research and claims for places of research excellence. In this paper I propose that any analysis should be weighted by the ‘prize share’ made by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to each recipient. In addition, I argue for a focus on the organization and period when the prize-winning research was carried out, rather than when the award was made and the often quoted ‘affiliated organization at the time of award’. I use this to briefly examine types of invention and discovery for all Nobel Prizes in Physics awarded to date (1901–2019). I then use this ‘place’ lens to briefly explore trends in invention and discovery in the awarding of the Nobel Prize in Physics. I conclude by drawing attention to the difference between institutions claiming Nobel Laureates and institutions where Nobel Prize-winning discoveries and inventions have been made.

All suggested notions of reduction of two scientific theories are critically reviewed and analyzed. In particular those applied to the case of the alleged reduction of Chemistry to Quantum mechanics are examined. Since it is recognized that the weakness of this field of research is the lack of a definition of a scientific theory, it is suggested that a scientific theory is characterized by two choices regarding two dichotomies, that is, the kind of mathematics and the kind of logic. According to this view a reduction is only possible between two theories in which the same choices are shared. As a consequence, only one case of reduction in the history of physics is recognized: physical optics to electromagnetism, a case that is commonly accepted. The other cases of claimed reductions are recognized as impossible, owing to the different choices of the two theories at issue and hence the radical variations in meaning of their shared basic notions. In particular, the claimed reduction of Chemistry to Quantum mechanics is disproved in detail.

In this paper, we deal with the historical origins of Fermi–Dirac statistics, focusing on the contribution by Enrico Fermi of 1926. We argue that this statistics, as opposed to that of Bose–Einstein, has been somewhat overlooked in the usual accounts of the old quantum theory. Our main objective is to offer a critical analysis of Fermi’s seminal paper and its immediate impact. Secondly, we are also interested in assessing the status of the particle concept in the years 1926–1927, especially regarding the germ of quantum indistinguishability. We will see, for example, that the first applications of the Fermi–Dirac statistics to the study of metals or stellar matter had a technical nature, and that their main instigators barely touched upon interpretative matters. Finally, we will discuss the reflections and remarks made in these respects in two famous events in physics of 1927, the Como conference and the fifth Solvay congress.

Usualmente atribui-se a Claude Elwood Shannon o papel de fundador da área da física hoje conhecida como teoria da informação. Neste artigo, trazemos um estudo histórico dos desenvolvimentos do campo desde de 1922 até os estudos imediatamente posteriores ao grupo de publicações de 1948, procurando entender como o campo se desenvolveu, os papeis dos diversos pesquisadores envolvidos e os motivos que fizeram com que Shannon fosse considerado fundador do campo. Durante o período em questão pudemos observar mudanças nos aspectos priorizados na pesquisa, passando da busca do entendimento do que seria transmitido em uma comunicação para o foco em aplicações tecnológicas em detrimento da compreensão do significado de informação. The foundation of the field of physics currently known as information theory is usually attributed to Claude Elwood Shannon. This article provides a historical study of the developments in the field from 1922 to the studies immediately following the 1948 series of publications, seeking to understand how the field developed, the various researchers’ roles, and why Shannon is considered the founder of the field. Along the period in focus, we could observe changes in the aspects prioritized in the research. It moved from the search for understanding what is conveyed in communication to focusing on the technological applications to the detriment of understanding the meaning of information.

Neste artigo discute-se o experimento seminal de Gleb Wataghin e seus jovens assistentes Marcelo Damy de Souza Santos e Paulus Aulus Pompéia em que foi detectado um componente inesperado de partículas capazes de atravessar dezenas de centímetros de chumbo (os chuveiros penetrantes), explorando as conexões entre o cenário brasileiro da época e os desenvolvimentos posteriores da física moderna. São ainda descritos os trabalhos de Wataghin na USP sobre raios cósmicos no período de 1939 a 1949, considerando a influência recíproca de Wataghin e Heisenberg na busca da solução para o problema das divergências da Eletrodinâmica Quântica (QED), na introdução de comprimento universal mínimo e, principalmente, na consolidação da hipótese da produção múltipla das partículas geradas na colisão dos raios cósmicos com a atmosfera. It is discussed the seminal experiment by Gleb Wataghin and his young assistants Marcelo Damy de Souza Santos and Paulus Aulus Pompéia, in which an unexpected component of very penetrating particles capable of crossing tens of centimeters of lead (the penetrating showers) was detected, exploring the connections between the Brazilian scenario at that time and the later developments of modern physics. Wataghin’s work at USP on cosmic rays in the period from 1939 to 1949 is also described, considering the reciprocal influence of Wataghin and Heisenberg in the search for a solution to the problem of divergences in Quantum Electrodynamics (QED), in the introduction of minimum universal length and, mainly, in the consolidation of the hypothesis of the multiple production of the particles generated in the collision of cosmic rays with the atmosphere.

Resumo: Durante a maior parte do s��culo XVII, os pesquisadores que contribu��ram para o desenvolvimento da mec��nica ��� como Galileo, Huygens e Newton ��� n��o dispunham do formalismo alg��brico com o qual representamos atualmente as leis da f��sica. Utilizavam apenas raz��es e propor����es e racioc��nios empregando m��todos geom��tricos. Mesmo Newton praticamente n��o utilizou o c��lculo diferencial e integral na apresenta����o de seus resultados. Por outro lado, na segunda metade do s��culo XVIII, a situa����o havia mudado completamente, atribuindo-se grande parte dessa mudan��a �� influ��ncia de Euler. Este artigo exp��e esse aspecto pouco conhecido da hist��ria da mec��nica, sugerindo a relev��ncia de introduzir o conhecimento dessa transforma����o dos m��todos matem��ticos da f��sica, no n��vel universit��rio, para que os estudantes e professores possam ter um conhecimento mais adequado sobre a origem daquilo que ensinamos atualmente. Palavras-chave: hist��ria da f��sica; hist��ria da mec��nica; formalismo matem��tico; Huygens, Christiaan; Newton, Isaac; Euler, Leonhard

Resumo: At�� o in��cio da d��cada de 1920, a teoria qu��ntica n��o possu��a um conjunto de princ��pios e m��todos claros, que pudesse ser aplicado a todos os fen��menos. Em meados dessa d��cada surgiram duas propostas distintas para uma mec��nica qu��ntica: a mec��nica matricial, iniciada por Werner Heisenberg e desenvolvida tamb��m por Max Born e Pascual Jordan; e a mec��nica ondulat��ria de Erwin Schr��dinger. Este artigo apresenta os principais personagens dessa hist��ria, bem como os passos mais importantes do desenvolvimento da mec��nica qu��ntica, focalizando principalmente os anos de 1925 e 1926. Apresenta tamb��m a quest��o da equival��ncia entre as duas abordagens ��� matricial e ondulat��ria ��� que come��ou a ser analisada nessa mesma ��poca e que �� discutida at�� hoje. Palavras-chave: mec��nica qu��ntica; mec��nica ondulat��ria; mec��nica matricial; teoria qu��ntica; hist��ria da f��sica

Resumo: Da Antiguidade até o século XVII, os autores que se dedicaram ao desenvolvimento dos princípios da mecânica – como Aristóteles, Arquimedes e Galileo – não dispunham do formalismo algébrico com o qual representamos atualmente as leis da física. Utilizavam apenas razões e proporções e raciocínios empregando métodos geométricos. Este artigo expõe esse aspecto da história da mecânica, apresentando os aspectos relevantes da matemática grega e discutindo a possível utilidade do estudo dessa antiga abordagem no ensino de física. Palavras-chave: história da física; história da mecânica; formalismo matemático; Aristóteles; Galileo Galilei

Resumo: Até o início da década de 1920, a teoria quântica não possuía um conjunto de princípios e métodos claros, que pudesse ser aplicado a todos os fenômenos. Em meados dessa década surgiram duas propostas distintas para uma mecânica quântica: a mecânica matricial, iniciada por Werner Heisenberg e desenvolvida também por Max Born e Pascual Jordan; e a mecânica ondulatória de Erwin Schrödinger. Este artigo apresenta os principais personagens dessa história, bem como os passos mais importantes do desenvolvimento da mecânica quântica, focalizando principalmente os anos de 1925 e 1926. Apresenta também a questão da equivalência entre as duas abordagens – matricial e ondulatória – que começou a ser analisada nessa mesma época e que é discutida até hoje. Palavras-chave: mecânica quântica; mecânica ondulatória; mecânica matricial; teoria quântica; história da física

Resumo: Este artigo apresenta o desenvolvimento da Óptica – especialmente sob o ponto de vista da teoria da visão – da Antiguidade até o período medieval, indicando a importância do trabalho de Ibn al-Haytham no desenvolvimento de novas ideias que transformaram essa teoria. No século XI, Ibn al-Haytham introduziu uma interpretação que é parcialmente igual à que aceitamos hoje: a de que a visão ocorre quando a luz atinge os objetos e, depois, é captada por nossos olhos, produzindo neles imagens. Porém, a compreensão do funcionamento dos olhos só se deu, de fato, no século XVII, culminando com a contribuição de Kepler. É necessário perceber a importância da contribuição de al-Haytham, mas também é extremamente relevante captar as limitações de sua teoria, sem descrevê-la de modo anacrônico. Palavras-chave: história da Óptica; história da Física; teoria da visão; Ibn al-Haytham; Óptica medieval; ciência islâmica

Resumo: Da Antiguidade at�� o s��culo XVII, os autores que se dedicaram ao desenvolvimento dos princ��pios da mec��nica ��� como Arist��teles, Arquimedes e Galileo ��� n��o dispunham do formalismo alg��brico com o qual representamos atualmente as leis da f��sica. Utilizavam apenas raz��es e propor����es e racioc��nios empregando m��todos geom��tricos. Este artigo exp��e esse aspecto da hist��ria da mec��nica, apresentando os aspectos relevantes da matem��tica grega e discutindo a poss��vel utilidade do estudo dessa antiga abordagem no ensino de f��sica. Palavras-chave: hist��ria da f��sica; hist��ria da mec��nica; formalismo matem��tico; Arist��teles; Galileo Galilei

Resumo: Este artigo apresenta o desenvolvimento da ��ptica ��� especialmente sob o ponto de vista da teoria da vis��o ��� da Antiguidade at�� o per��odo medieval, indicando a import��ncia do trabalho de Ibn al-Haytham no desenvolvimento de novas ideias que transformaram essa teoria. No s��culo XI, Ibn al-Haytham introduziu uma interpreta����o que �� parcialmente igual �� que aceitamos hoje: a de que a vis��o ocorre quando a luz atinge os objetos e, depois, �� captada por nossos olhos, produzindo neles imagens. Por��m, a compreens��o do funcionamento dos olhos s�� se deu, de fato, no s��culo XVII, culminando com a contribui����o de Kepler. �� necess��rio perceber a import��ncia da contribui����o de al-Haytham, mas tamb��m �� extremamente relevante captar as limita����es de sua teoria, sem descrev��-la de modo anacr��nico. Palavras-chave: hist��ria da ��ptica; hist��ria da F��sica; teoria da vis��o; Ibn al-Haytham; ��ptica medieval; ci��ncia isl��mica

Resumo: Durante a maior parte do século XVII, os pesquisadores que contribuíram para o desenvolvimento da mecânica – como Galileo, Huygens e Newton – não dispunham do formalismo algébrico com o qual representamos atualmente as leis da física. Utilizavam apenas razões e proporções e raciocínios empregando métodos geométricos. Mesmo Newton praticamente não utilizou o cálculo diferencial e integral na apresentação de seus resultados. Por outro lado, na segunda metade do século XVIII, a situação havia mudado completamente, atribuindo-se grande parte dessa mudança à influência de Euler. Este artigo expõe esse aspecto pouco conhecido da história da mecânica, sugerindo a relevância de introduzir o conhecimento dessa transformação dos métodos matemáticos da física, no nível universitário, para que os estudantes e professores possam ter um conhecimento mais adequado sobre a origem daquilo que ensinamos atualmente. Palavras-chave: história da física; história da mecânica; formalismo matemático; Huygens, Christiaan; Newton, Isaac; Euler, Leonhard

Objecting that Sommerfeld's quantum conditions refer to particular coordinates, Einstein proposes a more invariant rule. Even if the invariance is in fact canonical, as Graffi (2005) has pointed out, Einstein may have in mind a double configuration space invariance: with respect to loop deformations, and to point transformations-all on a torus where features of the Liouville-Arnol'd theorem already appear.

Erwin Schr��dinger���s work on wave mechanics started in late 1925, stimulated by his study of Louis de Broglie���s thesis. It is well known that in his initial attempts to formulate a quantum theory of the atom Schr��dinger tried to develop a relativistic theory, following de Broglie���s ideas, and only afterwards he looked for a non-relativistic wave equation. It is straightforward to derive the wave equation corresponding to de Broglie���s phase waves. both in the relativistic and non-relativistic realms. In the case of his relativistic attempt, Schr��dinger did indeed follow a simple approach, using de Broglie���s theory. In the non-relativistic approach, he attempted to produce an independent derivation of the wave equation, following several different lines, instead of using de Broglie���s results in the classical limit. This paper analyses Schr��dinger���s derivations of the wave equation, showing the differences and similarities between his theory and de Broglie���s. It will be shown that, although it is formally possible to derive the wave equation from de Broglie���s theory, there is an incompatibility between the two theories: it would be impossible to make any sense of de Broglie���s ideas in the case of the rigid rotator, for instance. Schr��dinger���s approach was, in this sense, independent and incompatible with de Broglie���s theory, and it could be easily applied to many different physical situations. This heuristic value of Schr��dinger���s wave equation is another very important distinction between the two theories, since de Broglie���s theory only led to a single new prediction: the wave behaviour of electrons in diffraction experiments. Keywords: Schr��dinger, Erwin; de Broglie, Louis; wave mechanics; wave equation; quantum mechanics; history of physics

Erwin Schrödinger’s work on wave mechanics started in late 1925, stimulated by his study of Louis de Broglie’s thesis. It is well known that in his initial attempts to formulate a quantum theory of the atom Schrödinger tried to develop a relativistic theory, following de Broglie’s ideas, and only afterwards he looked for a non-relativistic wave equation. It is straightforward to derive the wave equation corresponding to de Broglie’s phase waves. both in the relativistic and non-relativistic realms. In the case of his relativistic attempt, Schrödinger did indeed follow a simple approach, using de Broglie’s theory. In the non-relativistic approach, he attempted to produce an independent derivation of the wave equation, following several different lines, instead of using de Broglie’s results in the classical limit. This paper analyses Schrödinger’s derivations of the wave equation, showing the differences and similarities between his theory and de Broglie’s. It will be shown that, although it is formally possible to derive the wave equation from de Broglie’s theory, there is an incompatibility between the two theories: it would be impossible to make any sense of de Broglie’s ideas in the case of the rigid rotator, for instance. Schrödinger’s approach was, in this sense, independent and incompatible with de Broglie’s theory, and it could be easily applied to many different physical situations. This heuristic value of Schrödinger’s wave equation is another very important distinction between the two theories, since de Broglie’s theory only led to a single new prediction: the wave behaviour of electrons in diffraction experiments. Keywords: Schrödinger, Erwin; de Broglie, Louis; wave mechanics; wave equation; quantum mechanics; history of physics

Pierre and Marie Curie's main discoveries on radioactivity are usually regarded as empirical investigations that were developed without any theoretical guidance. Their papers avoid indeed theoretical discussion, but it is possible to identify the main hypothesis that directed their work. They thought that the radiation emitted by uranium compounds (and, later, by other similar substances) was similar to the secondary radiation emitted by heavy metals when they are hit by X-rays. This hypothesis, together with other relevant assumptions, was suggested by Georges Sagnac's investigation on X-rays. This paper describes Sagnac's studies and how the acceptance of the secondary radiation hypothesis guided the study of radioactivity by the Curies. For the Curies, this hypothesis explained one of the anomalous characteristics of radioactivity – the continuous emission of energy without any noticeable change of the emitting bodies. When the magnetic deviation of the beta-rays of radioactive bodies was discovered, in 1899, this presented a challenge to their hypothesis. They carefully checked that discovery, and attempted to produce a magnetic deflection of X-rays, with negative results. However, in 1900 Pierre Curie and Georges Sagnac investigated secondary X-rays and concluded that they contained both "soft" X-rays and a negatively charged radiation (similar to beta-rays). Because of those results, they still kept their faith in the secondary radiation hypothesis at the time when Rutherford and Soddy began to develop the disintegration theory of radioactivity. Keywords: radioactivity; X-rays; history of physics; Curie, Marie; Curie, Pierre; Sagnac, Georges

A few weeks after Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen communicated the discovery of X-rays, Henri Poincaré suggested that the emission of those rays could be associated to luminescence phenomena. Following Poincaré’s conjecture, many researchers investigated the emission of penetrating radiation by phosphors and other substances. The “discovery” of several new effect was reported – such as the emission of radiation by sugar and glow worms. The paper describes Henri Becquerel’s and Silvanus Thompson’s study of the radiation of uranium compounds in this context. Both adopted the natural hypothesis that the observed phenomenon was due to a special phosphorescence that violated Stokes’ law. Becquerel, Thompson and contemporaneous scientists were unable to distinguish what we now call radioactivity from other spurious reported phenomena. Those researches were made in a highly speculative and uncritical period, when elementary experimental precautions were overlooked. Keywords: radioactivity; penetrating radiation; X-rays; history of physics; Becquerel, Henri; Thompson, Silvanus

In 1896, Henri Becquerel detected a penetrating radiation emitted by some uranium salts and met a phenomenon that nowadays we call “radioactivity”. Becquerel’s study of uranium radiation was not casual or blind. It was guided by his acceptance of Poincaré’s conjecture concerning a possible relation between X rays and luminescence. What Becquerel expected to find was the emission of a penetrating electromagnetic radiation (something similar to ultraviolet rays) emitted by a special phenomenon of fluorescence or phosphorescence that violated Stokes’ law. Guided by his preconceptions, Becquerel described experiments that seemed to support the view that uranium radiation had the usual properties of known electromagnetic waves: reflection, refraction and polarization. He also described an increase in the emission of radiation when uranium compounds were stimulated by sunlight. Those and several other aspects of Becquerel’s experimental work must nowadays be interpreted as experimental mistakes. Becquerel’s mistakes were gradually corrected by other researchers. As the study of radioactivity developed, Becquerel reinterpreted his own early work, hiding his mistakes or ascribing to himself their correction. The aim of this article is to discuss one particular episode of experimentation – Becquerel’s study of the phenomenon we call radioactivity – and the methodological problems aroused by his mistakes. Keywords: radioactivity; experimental errors; history of physics; Becquerel, Henri