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La presente investigación se enfocó en realizar un seguimiento de los recursos del Sistema General de Participaciones de Colombia destinados al Agua Potable Y Saneamiento Básico en el municipio de Manaure-Cesar durante los años 2018-2022, fundamentada en los bajos niveles de cobertura encontrados en los servicios que comprende este sector, es decir, acueducto, aseo y alcantarillado y teniendo en cuenta que estos recursos son una fuente de financiamiento indispensable para el sostenimiento de los servicios. La metodología utilizada fue cualitativa y descriptiva, con el método de análisis cualitativo de contenido, realizándose una revisión documental de datos de ejecuciones presupuestales, con el objetivo de evaluar la gestión de los recursos del SGP destinados a agua potable y saneamiento básico, así como su impacto en la cobertura de los servicios del sector en el municipio de Manaure. Los resultados de la investigación muestran que, de manera general, se observa una buena ejecución de gastos entre 2018 y 2022, pero enfocado principalmente en subsidios y tareas de funcionamiento de la empresa, por lo tanto, se evidencia poco presupuesto para proyectos de inversión o mejoramiento, lo cual está afectando la calidad y cobertura de los servicios de APSB. Teniendo en cuenta estos resultados, se sugiere una mayor diversificación de las inversiones y un mayor enfoque en proyectos de inversión para el mejoramiento de los servicios en lugar de solo en el mantenimiento de infraestructuras. The present investigation focused on monitoring the resources of the General System of Participations of Colombia dedicated to Drinking Water and Basic Sanitation in the municipality of Manaure-Cesar during the years 2018-2022, fundamental in the low levels of coverage found in the services that this sector comprises, that is, aqueduct, cleaning and sewerage and taking into account that these resources are an essential source of financing for the maintenance of services. The methodology used was qualitative and descriptive, with the method of qualitative content analysis, carrying out a documentary review of data from budget executions, with the objective of evaluating the management of the SGP resources destined to drinking water and basic sanitation, as well as their impact on the coverage of the services of the sector in the municipality of Manaure. The results of the investigation show that, in general, a good execution of expenses is observed between 2018 and 2022, but it was mainly focused on subsidies and tasks of the company's operation, therefore, there is little budget for investment projects. or improvement, which is expanding the quality and coverage of APSB services. Taking these results into account, a greater diversification of investments is suggested and a greater focus on investment projects for the improvement of services instead of only on infrastructure maintenance. Especialista en Finanzas Públicas http://www.ustabuca.edu.co/ustabmanga/presentacion Especialización

Esta investigación tuvo como objetivo realizar un análisis cuantitativo y cualitativo de los efectos que tiene la musicoterapia en la autoestima de un grupo de personas con discapacidad visual, jóvenes estudiantes de diferentes carreras de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia. La metodología incluyó mediciones a través de instrumentos de registro musicoterapéuticos y la escala de autoestima de Rosenberg al inicio y al final de la investigación, los cuales proporcionaron la información necesaria para el desarrollo de la intervención y su respectiva evaluación final. Los resultados mostraron que los estudiantes pudieron ser conscientes de los cambios que promueven su crecimiento personal, mejorando su percepción de bienestar, teniendo en cuenta la importancia de mantener un buen autoconcepto, su autonomía, identificar sus fortalezas y cualidades y permitir expresar sus emociones. Esto permitió construir y mantener una autoestima adecuada al finalizar la intervención musicoterapéutica. Se determina así que la musicoterapia es efectiva en el fortalecimiento de la autoestima del grupo intervenido principalmente desde el trabajo con canciones y los métodos de improvisación y receptivo. (Texto tomado de la fuente) The objective of this research was to carry out a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the effects that music therapy has on the self-esteem of a group of people with visual disabilities, young students of different careers at the National University of Colombia. The methodology included measurements applying music therapy recording tools and the Rosenberg self-esteem scale at the beginning and end of the investigation, which provided the necessary information for the development of the intervention and its respective final evaluation. The results showed that the students were able to be aware of the changes that promote their personal growth, improving their perception of well-being, considering the importance of maintaining a good self-concept, their autonomy, identifying their strengths and qualities and allowing them to express their emotions. This allowed building and maintaining adequate selfesteem at the end of the music therapy intervention. Thus, it is determined that music therapy is effective for strengthening the self-esteem of the group intervened mainly from the work with songs and the methods of improvisation and receptive. Maestría Magíster en Musicoterapia

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to identify, assess, and reach a consensus on the professional competencies that optometrists must acquire during their undergraduate training at the University of Valladolid. The results obtained may be useful in the revision of the current curriculum. METHODS: A three round Delphi study was carried out with the participation of 116 participants grouped in 7 panels. In the first round, competencies were identified through an open-ended question and their frequency calculated. In the successive 2nd and 3rd rounds, the consensus and stability of each competency was established. RESULTS: A total of 56 professional competencies were identified, with 43 of them (77%) achieving a consensus among participants, of which the highest scores were obtained by the competencies that correspond to health functions of primary visual care. Out of the 13 competencies without consensus, for 11 of them this was due to the significant differences in assessment among the consulted participants; for 8 competencies (14%) response stability was found, while neither consensus nor stability were reached in 5 (9%) of the identified competencies. CONCLUSIONS: The results obtained with this Delphi study provide a set of relevant competencies for updating the curriculum of the university Degree in Optics and Optometry at the University of Valladolid, improving its suitability to current and future professional reality.

Chronic sustained hypoxia (CSH), as found in individuals living at a high altitude or in patients suffering respiratory disorders, initiates physiological adaptations such as carotid body stimulation to maintain oxygen levels, but has deleterious effects such as pulmonary hypertension (PH). Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), a respiratory disorder of increasing prevalence, is characterized by a situation of chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH). OSA is associated with the development of systemic hypertension and cardiovascular pathologies, due to carotid body and sympathetic overactivation. There is growing evidence that CIH can also compromise the pulmonary circulation, causing pulmonary hypertension in OSA patients and animal models. The aim of this work was to compare hemodynamics, vascular contractility, and L-arginine-NO metabolism in two models of PH in rats, associated with CSH and CIH exposure. We demonstrate that whereas CSH and CIH cause several common effects such as an increased hematocrit, weight loss, and an increase in pulmonary artery pressure (PAP), compared to CIH, CSH seems to have more of an effect on the pulmonary circulation, whereas the effects of CIH are apparently more targeted on the systemic circulation. The results suggest that the endothelial dysfunction evident in pulmonary arteries with both hypoxia protocols are not due to an increase in methylated arginines in these arteries, although an increase in plasma SDMA could contribute to the apparent loss of basal NO-dependent vasodilation and, therefore, the increase in PAP that results from CIH., The present study was supported by grant reference BFU2015-70616-R from MINECOFEDER (Spain) and grant number VA106G18 (JCyL, Spain). Programa Estrategico IBGM, Escalera de Excelencia, ref. CCVC8485, Consejeria de Educacion, Junta de Castilla y León (Spain).

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Guinea pigs (GP), originally from the Andes, have absence of hypoxia-driven carotid body (CB) reflex. Neonatal mammals have an immature CB chemo reflex and respond to hypoxia with metabolic changes arising from direct effects of hypoxia on adrenal medulla (AM). Our working hypothesis is that adult GP would mimic neonatal mammals. Plasma epinephrine (E) has an AM origin, while norepinephrine (NE) is mainly originated in sympathetic endings, implying that specific GP changes in plasma E/NE ratio, and in blood glucose and lactate levels during hypoxia would be observed. Experiments were performed on young adult GP and rats. Hypoxic ventilation (10% O

Resumen del trabajo presentado al European Respiratory Society (ERS) International Congress, celebrado en Paris (Francia) del 15 al 19 de septiembre de 2018., [Rationale & Aim]: Experimental evidences indicate a correlation among chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH), increased carotid body (CB) activity, enhanced sympatho-respiratory coupling and arterial hypertension. The recurrent hypoxia/reoxygenation episodes in CIH models produce CB sensitization increasing secretory response and chemoreceptor input to the brainstem, exaggerating the sympathetic reflex. CIH effect in the guinea pig CB, with a hypofunctional CB and lack of ventilatory responses to hypoxia, has not been studied., [Methods]: Guinea pigs were exposed to CIH (21%O2-80s / 5%O2-40s 8h/day; 30 days) and CB secretory response, pletismographic parameters, systemic arterial pressure and sympathetic activity were measured and compared to control animals., [Results]: Ventilatory data showed that only intense hypoxia induced significant increase of minute ventilation in both groups of animals. CB response to hypoxia (catecholamine (CA) secretion or Ca2+i changes) were not observed in C or CIH animals. Plasma CA, heart rate and mean arterial blood pressure were significantly increased in CIH guinea pigs., [Conclusion]: CIH induced hypoxic activation of the sympathetic system non-dependent of CB chemoreceptors, promoting cardiovascular adjustments. Guinea pigs can be a model to study the CB-dependent and nondependent effects induced by CIH., Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, MINECO/FEDER, UE (BFU2015-70616-R) and CIBERES, ISCiii (CB06/06/0050).

Clinical and experimental evidence indicates a positive correlation between chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH), increased carotid body (CB) chemosensitivity, enhanced sympatho-respiratory coupling and arterial hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Several groups have reported that both the afferent and efferent arms of the CB chemo-reflex are enhanced in CIH animal models through the oscillatory CB activation by recurrent hypoxia/reoxygenation episodes. Accordingly, CB ablation or denervation results in the reduction of these effects. To date, no studies have determined the effects of CIH treatment in chemo-reflex sensitization in guinea pig, a rodent with a hypofunctional CB and lacking ventilatory responses to hypoxia. We hypothesized that the lack of CB hypoxia response in guinea pig would suppress chemo-reflex sensitization and thereby would attenuate or eliminate respiratory, sympathetic and cardiovascular effects of CIH treatment. The main purpose of this study was to assess if guinea pig CB undergoes overactivation by CIH and to correlate CIH effects on CB chemoreceptors with cardiovascular and respiratory responses to hypoxia. We measured CB secretory activity, ventilatory parameters, systemic arterial pressure and sympathetic activity, basal and in response to acute hypoxia in two groups of animals: control and 30 days CIH exposed male guinea pigs. Our results indicated that CIH guinea pig CB lacks activity elicited by acute hypoxia measured as catecholamine (CA) secretory response or intracellular calcium transients. Plethysmography data showed that only severe hypoxia (7% O2) and hypercapnia (5% CO2) induced a significant increased ventilatory response in CIH animals, together with higher oxygen consumption. Therefore, CIH exposure blunted hyperventilation to hypoxia and hypercapnia normalized to oxygen consumption. Increase in plasma CA and superior cervical ganglion CA content was found, implying a CIH induced sympathetic hyperactivity. CIH promoted cardiovascular adjustments by increasing heart rate and mean arterial blood pressure without cardiac ventricle hypertrophy. In conclusion, CIH does not sensitize CB chemoreceptor response to hypoxia but promotes cardiovascular adjustments probably not mediated by the CB. Guinea pigs could represent an interesting model to elucidate the mechanisms that underlie the long-term effects of CIH exposure to provide evidence for the role of the CB mediating pathological effects in sleep apnea diseases., This research was supported by grants: MINECO/FEDER, UE BFU2015-70616R, and ISCiii CIBER CB06/06/0050., We acknowledge support of the publication fee by the CSIC Open Access Publication Support Initiative through its Unit of Information Resources for Research (URICI).

Resumen del trabajo presentado al European Respiratory Society (ERS) International Congress, celebrado en Paris (Francia) del 15 al 19 de septiembre de 2018., [Rationale & Aim]: Chronic sustained hypoxia (CSH) initiates physiological adaptations to maintain oxygen levels but also has deleterious effects as pulmonary hypertension (PH). Chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH), as found in obstructive sleep apnea, is associated with the development of systemic hypertension and cardiovascular pathologies. Our aim was to compare systemic and pulmonary hypertension and endothelial dysfunction development in rats exposed to CSH vs. CIH., [Methods]: We exposed male rats to sustained hypoxic atmosphere (10%O2; pO2≈70 mmHg, 14 days) or intermittent hypoxia (5%O2 40s, 21%O2 80s, 8h/day, 21 days). We measured pulmonary artery (PA) pressure by right heart catheterization, Fulton index, vasomotor responses in PA using small vessels myography and L- arginine-NO metabolism., [Results]: Systemic and pulmonary hypertension, besides left ventricular hypertrophy, occurs in response to CIH exposure in rats, preserving pulmonary artery endothelial integrity, but decreasing NO production and eNOS protein expression. Conversely, CSH exposure triggers CB mediated respiratory chemoreflex, PH and right ventricular hypertrophy, besides blunted pulmonary vascular relaxation to carbachol and reduced plasma L-arginine: asymmetric dimethyl arginine (ADMA) ratio., [Conclusion]: CSH and CIH point to different targets and different mechanisms to produce endothelial dysfunction and systemic and pulmonary hypertension in the rat., Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, MINECO/FEDER, UE (BFU2015-70616-R); CIBER Enfermedades Respiratorias, ISCiii (CIBERES, CB06/06/0050).

Mammals have developed different mechanisms to maintain oxygen supply to cells in response to hypoxia. One of those mechanisms, the carotid body (CB) chemoreceptors, is able to detect physiological hypoxia and generate homeostatic reflex responses, mainly ventilatory and cardiovascular. It has been reported that guinea pigs, originally from the Andes, have a reduced ventilatory response to hypoxia compared to other mammals, implying that CB are not completely functional, which has been related to genetically/epigenetically determined poor hypoxia-driven CB reflex. This study was performed to check the guinea pig CB response to hypoxia compared to the well-known rat hypoxic response. These experiments have explored ventilatory parameters breathing different gases mixtures, cardiovascular responses to acute hypoxia, in vitro CB response to hypoxia and other stimuli and isolated guinea pig chemoreceptor cells properties. Our findings show that guinea pigs are hypotensive and have lower arterial pO2 than rats, probably related to a low sympathetic tone and high hemoglobin affinity. Those characteristics could represent a higher tolerance to hypoxic environment than other rodents. We also find that although CB are hypo-functional not showing chronic hypoxia sensitization, a small percentage of isolated carotid body chemoreceptor cells contain tyrosine hydroxylase enzyme and voltage-dependent K+ currents and therefore can be depolarized. However hypoxia does not modify intracellular Ca2+ levels or catecholamine secretion. Guinea pigs are able to hyperventilate only in response to intense acute hypoxic stimulus, but hypercapnic response is similar to rats. Whether other brain areas are also activated by hypoxia in guinea pigs remains to be studied., This study was supported by grants BFU2015-70616R, SAF 2014-55399 and SAF 2016-77222-R (MINECO-FEDER), and CIBER CB06/06/0050 (ISCIII)., We acknowledge support of the publication fee by the CSIC Open Access Support Initiative through its Unit of Information Resources for Research (URICI)

The cascade of transduction of hypoxia and hypercapnia, the natural stimuli to chemoreceptor cells, is incompletely understood. A particular gap in that knowledge is the role played by second messengers, or in a most ample term, of modulators. A recently described modulator of chemoreceptor cell responses is the gaseous transmitter hydrogen sulfide, which has been proposed as a specific activator of the hypoxic responses in the carotid body, both at the level of the chemoreceptor cell response or at the level of the global output of the organ. Since sulfide behaves in this regard as cAMP, we explored the possibility that sulfide effects were mediated by the more classical messenger. Data indicate that exogenous and endogenous sulfide inhibits adenyl cyclase finding additionally that inhibition of adenylyl cyclase does not modify chemoreceptor cell responses elicited by sulfide. We have also observed that transient receptor potential cation channels A1 (TRPA1) are not regulated by sulfide in chemoreceptor cells.

Adult animals that have been perinatally exposed to oxygen-rich atmospheres (hyperoxia), recalling those used for oxygen therapy in infants, exhibit a loss of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, whereas vasoconstriction elicited by depolarizing agents is maintained. Loss of pulmonary hypoxic vasoconstriction is not linked to alterations in oxygen-sensitive K(+) currents in pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells. Loss of hypoxic vasoconstriction is associated with early postnatal oxidative damage and corrected by an antioxidant diet. Perinatal hyperoxia damages carotid body chemoreceptor cell function and the antioxidant diet does not reverse it. The hypoxia-elicited increase in erythropoietin plasma levels is not affected by perinatal hyperoxia. The potential clinical significance of the findings in clinical situations such as pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or general anaesthesia is considered.Adult mammalians possess three cell systems that are activated by acute bodily hypoxia: pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMC), carotid body chemoreceptor cells (CBCC) and erythropoietin (EPO)-producing cells. In rats, chronic perinatal hyperoxia causes permanent carotid body (CB) atrophy and functional alterations of surviving CBCC. There are no studies on PASMC or EPO-producing cells. Our aim is to define possible long-lasting functional changes in PASMC or EPO-producing cells (measured as EPO plasma levels) and, further, to analyse CBCC functional alterations. We used 3- to 4-month-old rats born and reared in a normal atmosphere or exposed to perinatal hyperoxia (55-60% O2 for the last 5-6 days of pregnancy and 4 weeks after birth). Perinatal hyperoxia causes an almost complete loss of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV), which was correlated with lung oxidative status in early postnatal life and prevented by antioxidant supplementation in the diet. O2 -sensitivity of K(+) currents in the PASMC of hyperoxic animals is normal, indicating that their inhibition is not sufficient to trigger HPV. Perinatal hyperoxia also abrogated responses elicited by hypoxia on catecholamine and cAMP metabolism in the CB. An increase in EPO plasma levels elicited by hypoxia was identical in hyperoxic and control animals, implying a normal functioning of EPO-producing cells. The loss of HPV observed in adult rats and caused by perinatal hyperoxia, comparable to oxygen therapy in premature infants, might represent a previously unrecognized complication of such a medical intervention capable of aggravating medical conditions such as regional pneumonias, atelectases or general anaesthesia in adult life.

The views presented in this article are the fruit of reflections and discussion with my colleagues at Valladolid and with the members of the Sleep Apnea Hypopnea Syndrome Group of the CIBERES (Spain). We have assembled the article in three sections. In the first one we provide a mechanistic description of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and all of its components, including the repetitive episodes of upper airways (UA) obstruction and accompanying hypoxic hypoxia, the respiratory efforts to fight and overcome the obstruction, and the sleep fragmentation due to the hypoxia-triggered arousal reactions, all events occurring during sleep hours with frequencies that might reach up40-50 episodes/sleep hour. When OSA is accompanied by some of the elements of a big cohort of associated pathologies (vascular, metabolic, and neuropsychiatric) it conforms the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS). The high frequency of OSAS in adults (35 years old) and the costs in every regard of the treatment makes the syndrome a primary importance socio-sanitary problem. In the second section, we describe the experimental models of OSAS, basically the episodic repetitive hypoxic model described by Fletcher and coworkers in 1992, today named in short intermittent hypoxia (IH). From these lines, we want to call for some kind of consensus among researchers to lessen the dispersion of IH protocols. Finally, in the last section we intend to share our optimism with all ISAC members. The optimism is based on the recognition that carotid body (CB) chemoreceptors are critical elements of one of the main pathophysiologic loops in the genesis of OSAS. Therefore, we believe that all of us, as ISAC members, are well qualified to contribute in multidisciplinary research teams with well defined translational interests.

The views presented in this article are the fruit of reflections and discussion with my colleagues at Valladolid and with the members of the Sleep Apnea Hypopnea Syndrome Group of the CIBERES (Spain). We have assembled the article in three sections. In the first one we provide a mechanistic description of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and all of its components, including the repetitive episodes of upper airways (UA) obstruction and accompanying hypoxic hypoxia, the respiratory efforts to fight and overcome the obstruction, and the sleep fragmentation due to the hypoxia-triggered arousal reactions, all events occurring during sleep hours with frequencies that might reach up >40–50 episodes/sleep hour. When OSA is accompanied by some of the elements of a big cohort of associated pathologies (vascular, metabolic, and neuropsychiatric) it conforms the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS). The high frequency of OSAS in adults (>35 years old) and the costs in every regard of the treatment makes the syndrome a primary importance socio-sanitary problem. In the second section, we describe the experimental models of OSAS, basically the episodic repetitive hypoxic model described by Fletcher and coworkers in 1992, today named in short intermittent hypoxia (IH). From these lines, we want to call for some kind of consensus among researchers to lessen the dispersion of IH protocols. Finally, in the last section we intend to share our optimism with all ISAC members. The optimism is based on the recognition that carotid body (CB) chemoreceptors are critical elements of one of the main pathophysiologic loops in the genesis of OSAS. Therefore, we believe that all of us, as ISAC members, are well qualified to contribute in multidisciplinary research teams with well defined translational interests., Supported by the MICINN grant (BFU2007-61848) and Accion Integrada PT2009-0172 and ICiii-CIBERES CB06/06/0050.

El artículo presenta los resultados de un estudio diagnóstico en el que se observaron 52 empresas de confección textil en Bucaramanga, que permitió caracterizar las necesidades de estas unidades productivas. Con base en los resultados, se formularon tres opciones estratégicas para mejorar su desempeño: a) consolidar el sistema productivo mediante herramientas que faciliten los procesos de producción, b) fortalecer la estructura de costos mediante el diseño de sistemas y herramientas y c) compartir iniciativas tecnológicas, de conocimiento y experiencia para mejorar la gestión y administración de recursos. Desde esta perspectiva, la segunda fase de investigación se orientó a desarrollar el software GCP 1.0 para micro y pequeñas empresas de confección infantil de Bucaramanga, un sistema de información de costos de producción que facilita esta gestión y la fijación de precios de venta.

Digital, La antracnosis es la enfermedad más importante en los frutales de la familia Annonaceae teniendo como principal consecuencia la momificación del fruto en cualquier etapa de su desarrollo. Esta enfermedad es causada por el hongo Colletotrichum el cual infecta los tejidos con sus conidios, estos a su vez se diseminan en los cultivos a través de la lluvia. Una alternativa para el control de esta enfermedad es el uso de microorganismos que gracias a sus capacidades antifúngicas son capaces de suprimir al ente patógeno, como es el caso de Trichoderma que puede expresar metabolitos y enzimas que parasitan o atacan otros organismos; al punto tal, que hoy en día esta propiedad se reconoce como la naturaleza innata de todo el género. Este trabajo evaluó un extracto de Trichoderma en el control del crecimiento in vitro (9 tratamientos) y el efecto preventivo (5 tratamientos) contra la infección de Colletotrichum sp. en frutos de Annona squamosa L. Para ello, cada tratamiento fue realizado por cuatriplicado. Respecto al control in vitro de Colletotrichum a una concentración del extracto de Trichoderma del 3% en adelante no permitieron el crecimiento del patógeno, sin embargo, en el efecto preventivo en los frutos de Annona squamosa L. no se logró prevenir la enfermedad de Colletotrichum con ninguna concentración del extracto de Trichoderma (3; 3,5 y 4%)., Anthracnose is the most important disease in the fruits of the Annonaceae family, with the main consequence being the mummification of the fruit at any stage of its development. This disease is caused by the fungus Colletotrichum which infects the tissues with its conidia, these in turn are spread in the crops through the rain. An alternative for the control of this disease is the use of microorganisms that, thanks to their antifungal capacities, are capable of suppressing the pathogenic entity, as is the case of Trichoderma, which can express metabolites and enzymes that parasitize and attack other organisms; to such an extent that today this property is recognized as the innate nature of the entire genre. This work evaluated a Trichoderma extract in vitro growth control (9 treatments) and the preventive effect (5 treatments) against Colletotrichum sp. in fruits of Annona squamosa L. For this, each treatment was performed in quadruplicate. Regarding the in vitro control of Colletotrichum, this at a concentration of Trichoderma extract of 3,0% onwards could not grow, however, in the preventive effect in the fruits of Annona squamosa L. it was not possible to prevent Colletotrichum disease with any concentration of Trichoderma extract (3; 3,5 and 4%)., Pregrado, Microbiólogo Industrial, Introducción .................................................................................................................................. 18 Planteamiento del Problema ......................................................................................................... 20 Justificación .................................................................................................................................. 21 Pregunta de Investigación ............................................................................................................. 23 Marco Teórico ............................................................................................................................... 24 Familia Annonaceae ..................................................................................................................... 24 Annona squamosa L (Anón). ........................................................................................................ 24 Origen y Distribución Geográfica. ................................................................................................ 25 Descripción Botánica. ................................................................................................................... 25 Principales Enfermedades Fúngicas. ............................................................................................ 27 Antracnosis (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides). ............................................................................ 27 Síntomas. ....................................................................................................................................... 27 Epidemiología. .............................................................................................................................. 28 Taxonomía de Colletotrichum. ..................................................................................................... 29 Morfología de Colletotrichum. ..................................................................................................... 29 Identificación Molecular de Colletotrichum. ................................................................................ 30 Trichoderma .................................................................................................................................. 31 Morfología de Trichoderma. ......................................................................................................... 31 Fisiología....................................................................................................................................... 32 Mecanismos de Acción. ................................................................................................................ 33 Extractos de Trichoderma sp. en el Control de Epifitias. ............................................................. 33 Estado del Arte .............................................................................................................................. 35 Hipótesis ....................................................................................................................................... 38 Hipótesis Nula (H0) ....................................................................................................................... 38 Hipótesis Alternativa (H1)............................................................................................................. 38 Objetivos ....................................................................................................................................... 39 Objetivo General ........................................................................................................................... 39 Objetivos Específicos .................................................................................................................... 39 Metodología .................................................................................................................................. 40 Fase 1: Cuantificación de la inhibición in vitro del extracto etanólico crudo de Trichoderma sp frente al crecimiento micelial de Colletotrichum sp. .................................................................... 40 Aislamiento de Colletotrichum sp. ............................................................................................... 40 Obtención del extracto de Trichoderma sp. .................................................................................. 40 Cuantificación in Vitro de la Inhibición in Vitro del Extracto Etanólico Crudo de Trichoderma sp. .................................................................................................................................................. 42 Análisis Estadísticos. .................................................................................................................... 44 Fase 2. Estimación del Efecto Preventivo del Extracto de Trichoderma sp. en Frutos de Anona Squamosa ...................................................................................................................................... 44 Selección de Frutos ....................................................................................................................... 44 Efecto preventivo .......................................................................................................................... 44 Análisis Estadístico. ...................................................................................................................... 47 Resultados y Discusión ................................................................................................................. 48 Resultado 1: Cuantificación de la Inhibición Micelial in Vitro del Extracto Etanólico de Trichoderma sp. ............................................................................................................................ 48 Aislamiento del Hongo Colletotrichum. ....................................................................................... 48 Cuantificación in Vitro del Extracto de Trichoderma................................................................... 50 Resultado 2. Estimación del Efecto Preventivo del Extracto de Trichoderma sp. en Frutos de Anona squamosa ........................................................................................................................... 54 Efecto Preventivo. ......................................................................................................................... 54 Conclusiones ................................................................................................................................. 60 Recomendaciones ......................................................................................................................... 61 Referencias Bibliográficas ............................................................................................................ 62 Apéndices ...................................................................................................................................... 77 Apéndice A. ANOVA Realizado en la Fase in vitro ...................................................................... 77 Apéndice B. Prueba de Dunnett Realizada para la Fase in Vitro ................................................ 78 Apéndice C. ANOVA Realizado para la Fase Preventiva ........................................................... 79 Apéndice D. Prueba de Dunnett Realizada para la Fase Preventiva........................................... 80