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Many river systems in Europe have altered morphology and deteriorated ecosystems due to human interference. We demonstrate how conflicting interests of nature, society and economics in the Dutch–German Ems-Dollard system complicate achieving the nature restoration targeted by the EU Water Framework Directive. This article provides a multidisciplinary perspective on the natural characteristics of a water system and the practical implementation of regulation and policy in a transboundary setting. Important shortcomings of EU and national laws and directives are the static constraints for protection of demarcated habitats under EU directives, which do not do justice to natural hydro-morphodynamic processes.

Many river systems in Europe have altered morphology and deteriorated ecosystems due to human interference. We demonstrate how conflicting interests of nature, society and economics in the Dutch–German Ems-Dollard system complicate achieving the nature restoration targeted by the EU Water Framework Directive. This article provides a multidisciplinary perspective on the natural characteristics of a water system and the practical implementation of regulation and policy in a transboundary setting. Important shortcomings of EU and national laws and directives are the static constraints for protection of demarcated habitats under EU directives, which do not do justice to natural hydro-morphodynamic processes.

The precautionary and prevention principles require that environmental risks should timely and adequately be regulated before potentially harmful activities are undertaken. The system of administrative environmental law provides ample instruments for such regulation. However, scientific uncertainties about environmental risks could complicate the formulation and implementation of effective environmental risk management strategies. This could lead to systemic imperfections and regulatory gaps which, in turn, undermine the system’s effectiveness and increase the need for regulatory ‘back-ups’. The system of private law is often seen as a potential back-up. In analyzing the complementary effects between both systems and using environmental risks of chemical mining activities in the (deep) subsoil as an example, this article concludes that the actual regulatory effect of tort law should not be overestimated. The complementary role of tort law in regulating environmental risks is mostly limited to the specification and on some occasions enforcement of environmental responsibilities.

The precautionary and prevention principles require that environmental risks should timely and adequately be regulated before potentially harmful activities are undertaken. The system of administrative environmental law provides ample instruments for such regulation. However, scientific uncertainties about environmental risks could complicate the formulation and implementation of effective environmental risk management strategies. This could lead to systemic imperfections and regulatory gaps which, in turn, undermine the system’s effectiveness and increase the need for regulatory ‘back-ups’. The system of private law is often seen as a potential back-up. In analyzing the complementary effects between both systems and using environmental risks of chemical mining activities in the (deep) subsoil as an example, this article concludes that the actual regulatory effect of tort law should not be overestimated. The complementary role of tort law in regulating environmental risks is mostly limited to the specification and on some occasions enforcement of environmental responsibilities.

The precautionary and prevention principles require that environmental risks should timely and adequately be regulated before potentially harmful activities are undertaken. The system of administrative environmental law provides ample instruments for such regulation. However, scientific uncertainties about environmental risks could complicate the formulation and implementation of effective environmental risk management strategies. This could lead to systemic imperfections and regulatory gaps which, in turn, undermine the system's effectiveness and increase the need for regulatory 'back-ups'. The system of private law is often seen as a potential back-up. In analyzing the complementary effects between both systems and using environmental risks of chemical mining activities in the (deep) subsoil as an example, this article concludes that the actual regulatory effect of tort law should not be overestimated. The complementary role of tort law in regulating environmental risks is mostly limited to the specification and on some occasions enforcement of environmental responsibilities.

Is het huidige Nederlandse juridische instrumentarium afdoende om de ambitieuze klimaatdoelstellingen voor 2030 te verwezenlijken? Of bestaat er behoefte aan een andere interpretatie en toepassing van bestaande instrumenten, aan de doorontwikkeling van het bestaande recht of aan geheel nieuwe juridische instrumenten? Deze bundel bestaat uit vier delen. In 21 bijdragen wordt u meegenomen langs diverse juridische vragen. Het eerste deel bevat een algemene analyse van de aard en omvang van de taakstelling waarvoor Nederland staat. Het centrale thema van het tweede deel is aansprakelijkheid in verband met klimaatverandering. In het derde deel wordt ingegaan op de energietransitie en in het vierde deel op klimaatadaptatie. Dit boek is geschikt voor een ieder die geïnteresseerd is in de juridische aspecten van de mitigatie van klimaatverandering, energietransitie en adaptatie in Nederland.

Is het huidige Nederlandse juridische instrumentarium afdoende om de ambitieuze klimaatdoelstellingen voor 2030 te verwezenlijken? Of bestaat er behoefte aan een andere interpretatie en toepassing van bestaande instrumenten, aan de doorontwikkeling van het bestaande recht of aan geheel nieuwe juridische instrumenten? Deze bundel bestaat uit vier delen. In 21 bijdragen wordt u meegenomen langs diverse juridische vragen. Het eerste deel bevat een algemene analyse van de aard en omvang van de taakstelling waarvoor Nederland staat. Het centrale thema van het tweede deel is aansprakelijkheid in verband met klimaatverandering. In het derde deel wordt ingegaan op de energietransitie en in het vierde deel op klimaatadaptatie. Dit boek is geschikt voor een ieder die geïnteresseerd is in de juridische aspecten van de mitigatie van klimaatverandering, energietransitie en adaptatie in Nederland.

De beheersing van waterschaarste zal de komende jaren een steeds grotere maatschappelijke uitdaging gaan vormen. Daarom bespreken wij in deze bijdrage de vraag in hoeverre het huidige juridische en beleidsinstrumentarium ter beheersing van waterschaarsterisico’s toereikend is voor de toekomst. Wij concluderen dat de traditionele vraaggestuurde en faciliterende houding van de overheid ook op de middellange termijn (2030) nog uitkomst kan bieden. Daarnaast moet er echter op korte termijn meer aandacht komen voor eigen verantwoordelijkheden en zelfvoorzienendheid, zowel bij bedrijven als bij particulieren. Bovendien dienen ook aanbodgestuurde strategieën die strekken tot de verkleining en verandering van de (regionale) waterbehoefte een grondslag te (gaan) vormen voor toekomstig verdelingsbeleid. In deze bijdrage bespreken wij daar diverse mogelijkheden voor in twee specifieke sectoren: de agrarische sector en het particuliere drinkwatergebruik.

In deze bijdrage bespreken wij het Nederlandse overstromingsrisicobeheer en de meest recente juridische en beleidsontwikkelingen op dat terrein. In het bijzonder gaan wij in op de ontwikkelingen rondom het concept ‘meerlaagsveiligheid’. Naast een sterke traditionele focus op de beperking van de kans op een overstroming vinden er namelijk steeds meer complementaire ontwikkelingen plaats die het beperken van de gevolgen van een eventuele overstroming centraal stellen. Gevolgbeperking kan plaatsvinden in het ruimtelijke spoor (ruimtelijke adaptatie; ‘laag 2’) of in het spoor van de rampenbeheersing (‘laag 3’). Wij achten dit positieve ontwikkelingen, maar menen dat deze in de huidige beleidsconstructie niet voldoende tot hun recht komen. Daarom doen wij enkele aanbevelingen voor de juridische verankering van deze twee gevolgbeperkende strategieën. Hiermee kunnen de effectiviteit en de veerkracht van het Nederlandse overstromingsrisicobeheer worden bevorderd en wordt bijgedragen aan het bereiken van de waterveiligheidsdoelen op de middellange (2030) en de langere termijn (2050).

Jaarlijks ontvangt Nederland een hoeveelheid water die, bij een landoppervlak van 35.000 km2, overeenkomt met een waterschijf van ongeveer drie meter hoog. Ruim twee meter komt binnen via de rivieren en bijna een meter via de neerslag. Hiervan verdampt een halve meter, zodat er een surplus overblijft van 2,5 meter. Dat staat gelijk aan een watervolume van 88 miljard kuub. Toch kampen we in onze delta tijdens droge tijden met een watertekort, zoals we de afgelopen zomers hebben gemerkt.

Jaarlijks ontvangt Nederland een hoeveelheid water die, bij een landoppervlak van 35.000 km2, overeenkomt met een waterschijf van ongeveer drie meter hoog. Ruim twee meter komt binnen via de rivieren en bijna een meter via de neerslag. Hiervan verdampt een halve meter, zodat er een surplus overblijft van 2,5 meter. Dat staat gelijk aan een watervolume van 88 miljard kuub. Toch kampen we in onze delta tijdens droge tijden met een watertekort, zoals we de afgelopen zomers hebben gemerkt.

Jaarlijks ontvangt Nederland een hoeveelheid water die, bij een landoppervlak van 35.000 km2, overeenkomt met een waterschijf van ongeveer drie meter hoog. Ruim twee meter komt binnen via de rivieren en bijna een meter via de neerslag. Hiervan verdampt een halve meter, zodat er een surplus overblijft van 2,5 meter. Dat staat gelijk aan een watervolume van 88 miljard kuub. Toch kampen we in onze delta tijdens droge tijden met een watertekort, zoals we de afgelopen zomers hebben gemerkt.

De beheersing van waterschaarste zal de komende jaren een steeds grotere maatschappelijke uitdaging gaan vormen. Daarom bespreken wij in deze bijdrage de vraag in hoeverre het huidige juridische en beleidsinstrumentarium ter beheersing van waterschaarsterisico’s toereikend is voor de toekomst. Wij concluderen dat de traditionele vraaggestuurde en faciliterende houding van de overheid ook op de middellange termijn (2030) nog uitkomst kan bieden. Daarnaast moet er echter op korte termijn meer aandacht komen voor eigen verantwoordelijkheden en zelfvoorzienendheid, zowel bij bedrijven als bij particulieren. Bovendien dienen ook aanbodgestuurde strategieën die strekken tot de verkleining en verandering van de (regionale) waterbehoefte een grondslag te (gaan) vormen voor toekomstig verdelingsbeleid. In deze bijdrage bespreken wij daar diverse mogelijkheden voor in twee specifieke sectoren: de agrarische sector en het particuliere drinkwatergebruik.

In deze bijdrage bespreken wij het Nederlandse overstromingsrisicobeheer en de meest recente juridische en beleidsontwikkelingen op dat terrein. In het bijzonder gaan wij in op de ontwikkelingen rondom het concept ‘meerlaagsveiligheid’. Naast een sterke traditionele focus op de beperking van de kans op een overstroming vinden er namelijk steeds meer complementaire ontwikkelingen plaats die het beperken van de gevolgen van een eventuele overstroming centraal stellen. Gevolgbeperking kan plaatsvinden in het ruimtelijke spoor (ruimtelijke adaptatie; ‘laag 2’) of in het spoor van de rampenbeheersing (‘laag 3’). Wij achten dit positieve ontwikkelingen, maar menen dat deze in de huidige beleidsconstructie niet voldoende tot hun recht komen. Daarom doen wij enkele aanbevelingen voor de juridische verankering van deze twee gevolgbeperkende strategieën. Hiermee kunnen de effectiviteit en de veerkracht van het Nederlandse overstromingsrisicobeheer worden bevorderd en wordt bijgedragen aan het bereiken van de waterveiligheidsdoelen op de middellange (2030) en de langere termijn (2050).

Jaarlijks ontvangt Nederland een hoeveelheid water die, bij een landoppervlak van 35.000 km2, overeenkomt met een waterschijf van ongeveer drie meter hoog. Ruim twee meter komt binnen via de rivieren en bijna een meter via de neerslag. Hiervan verdampt een halve meter, zodat er een surplus overblijft van 2,5 meter. Dat staat gelijk aan een watervolume van 88 miljard kuub. Toch kampen we in onze delta tijdens droge tijden met een watertekort, zoals we de afgelopen zomers hebben gemerkt.

This article finds that the introduction of a rights-based approach in EU transboundary river basin management to remedy observed systemic difficulties and to better achieve legal water quality standards could be a next step in achieving integrated river basin management. However, its effectiveness largely depends on the willingness of member states to share river basin districts to subordinate their separate socio-economic interests to ecological needs, as well as to grant a clear mandate and partly transfer responsibilities and powers to a competent supranational authority.

Om het effect van het voorland nu en in de toekomst te kunnen garanderen, kan een zekere mate van juridische borging nodig zijn. Met juridische borging wordt hier bedoeld het geheel van maatregelen waarmee een beheerder zijn belang in het voorland met voldoende zekerheid kan garanderen, zodat de bijdrage daarvan aan de waterveiligheid meegenomen kan worden. Juridische borging is een instrument om het beheer effectief te kunnen inrichten.

Special Issue in Water International containing a number of publications about the introduction of a rights-based approach in river management

We identify uncertainties and knowledge gaps of chemical risk assessment related to unconventional drillings and propose adaptations. We discuss how chemical risk assessment in the context of unconventional oil and gas (UO&G) activities differs from conventional chemical risk assessment and the implications for existing legislation. A UO&G suspect list of 1,386 chemicals that might be expected in the UO&G water samples was prepared which can be used for LC-HRMS suspect screening. We actualize information on reported concentrations in UO&G-related water. Most information relates to shale gas operations, followed by coal-bed methane, while only little is available for tight gas and conventional gas. The limited research on conventional oil and gas recovery hampers comparison whether risks related to unconventional activities are in fact higher than those related to conventional activities. No study analyzed the whole cycle from fracturing fluid, flowback and produced water, and surface water and groundwater. Generally target screening has been used, probably missing contaminants of concern. Almost half of the organic compounds analyzed in surface water and groundwater exceed TTC values, so further risk assessment is needed, and risks cannot be waived. No specific exposure scenarios toward groundwater aquifers exist for UO&G-related activities. Human errors in various stages of the life cycle of UO&G production play an important role in the exposure. Neither at the international level nor at the US federal and the EU levels, specific regulations for UO&G-related activities are in place to protect environmental and human health. UO&G activities are mostly regulated through general environmental, spatial planning, and mining legislation.

The OECD Principles on Water Governance aim to contribute to good water governance. Learning and change through assessments are useful ways to strengthen water governance systems. This article presents a methodology for a learning assessment based on the OECD principles. The methodology has been applied to the Dutch Flood Protection Programme. The analysis revealed various functions of the OECD principles, from enhancing understanding to reforming the agenda, reflection and informed action. Recommendations are given on how the OECD principles can be used to come to meaningful action-oriented water governance assessments; they include contextualization, multiple methods, inclusiveness and periodic assessments.

In dit artikel gaan de auteurs in op de nieuwe normeringssystematiek voor primaire waterkeringen en een nieuwe systematiek voor de beoordeling van de waterveiligheid. Het nieuwe systeem en de verschillen met het voorgaande worden besproken, de eventuele juridische gevolgen daarvan voor de waterkeringbeheerder worden in kaart gebracht, mede in het licht van de Omgevingswet.

In dit artikel gaan de auteurs in op de nieuwe normeringssystematiek voor primaire waterkeringen en een nieuwe systematiek voor de beoordeling van de waterveiligheid. Het nieuwe systeem en de verschillen met het voorgaande worden besproken, de eventuele juridische gevolgen daarvan voor de waterkeringbeheerder worden in kaart gebracht, mede in het licht van de Omgevingswet.

This chapter presents and applies an interdisciplinary (law & governance) method for assessing the climate resilience of critical infrastructural network sectors. Broadly applicable, this methodological framework comprises three phases, within which six logically arranged steps are set out. The central assessment criterion for climate resilience, the expected effectiveness of responsibilities for climate adaptation, is operationalized through six indicators: awareness, proactivity, appropriateness, explicitness, transparency, and legitimacy. Apart from academic purposes, this assessment framework can prove useful to law and policy makers in assessing and (re)developing relevant arrangements governing critical infrastructural network sectors. To give a view of the functioning of the assessment framework, this framework is applied in two case studies addressing the Dutch electricity and internet sectors. These case studies show a rather low level of expected effectiveness of responsibilities for climate adaptation in both sectors. Apart from their exemplary purpose, these case studies provide insights into potential pitfalls, which can be relevant for increasing climate resilience of other network sectors in the Netherlands, other EU Member States, and abroad.

This chapter presents and applies an interdisciplinary (law & governance) method for assessing the climate resilience of critical infrastructural network sectors. Broadly applicable, this methodological framework comprises three phases, within which six logically arranged steps are set out. The central assessment criterion for climate resilience, the expected effectiveness of responsibilities for climate adaptation, is operationalized through six indicators: awareness, proactivity, appropriateness, explicitness, transparency, and legitimacy. Apart from academic purposes, this assessment framework can prove useful to law and policy makers in assessing and (re)developing relevant arrangements governing critical infrastructural network sectors. To give a view of the functioning of the assessment framework, this framework is applied in two case studies addressing the Dutch electricity and internet sectors. These case studies show a rather low level of expected effectiveness of responsibilities for climate adaptation in both sectors. Apart from their exemplary purpose, these case studies provide insights into potential pitfalls, which can be relevant for increasing climate resilience of other network sectors in the Netherlands, other EU Member States, and abroad.

This chapter presents and applies an interdisciplinary (law & governance) method for the assessment of the climate resilience of critical infrastructural network sectors. Broadly applicable, this methodological framework comprises three phases, within which six logically arranged steps are set out. The central assessment criterion for climate resilience, the ‘expected effectiveness’ of responsibilities for climate adaptation, is operationalized through six indicators. These are: awareness, proactivity, appropriateness, explicitness, transparency and legitimacy. Apart from academic purposes, this assessment framework can prove useful to law and policy makers in assessing and (re)developing the relevant arrangements that govern critical infrastructural network sectors. To give examples of the functioning of the assessment framework, this framework is applied in two case studies that address the Dutch electricity and internet sectors. These case studies show a rather low level of expected effectiveness of responsibilities for climate adaptation in both sectors. Apart from their exemplary purpose, these case studies provide insights into potential pitfalls which can be relevant for increasing the climate resilience of other network sectors in the Netherlands, in other EU Member States and abroad.

Society is faced with a range of contemporary threats to everyday life, from natural and technological hazards, to accidents and terrorism. These are embodied within integrated emergency management arrangements, designed to enhance preparedness and response to such incidents, and in turn facilitate a prompt recovery. Such arrangements must be inherently dynamic and evolve as new threats emerge or as existing threats change. An example of the latter is the changing nature of flooding, which is projected to increase in both frequency and severity with climate change. Recognizing this evolving threat, this paper focuses on the evaluation of the effectiveness of domestic Flood Emergency Management Systems (FEMS) as components of integrated emergency management arrangements. Despite the extensive body of literature documenting success conditions of so-called effective emergency management more broadly, there have only been few attempts to construct a comprehensive evaluation framework to support objective assessment and cross-country comparison. Addressing this gap, this paper formulates an evaluation framework specifically tailored to the study of FEMS in Europe, which is then provisionally applied to the study of FEMS in England (UK), France, the Netherlands, Poland and Sweden. Important differences are observed in how FEMS have evolved in relation to differing contextual backgrounds (political, cultural, administrative and socio-economic) and exposures to flood hazard. From this provisional assessment, a number of opportunities and constraints to enhancing the effectiveness of FEMS in Europe are discerned. The evaluation framework thus serves as an important stepping stone for further in-depth inquiry, and as a valuable tool for future comparative study.

Diversification of Flood Risk Management (FRM) Strategies is widely regarded as a necessary step forward in terms of lessening the likelihood and magnitude of flooding, as well as minimizing the exposure of people and property, and in turn the disruption, economic damage, health impacts and other adverse consequences that ensue when floods occur. Thus diversification is often heralded as an essential condition for enhancing societal resilience to flooding. However, an inevitable consequence of diversifying strategies and practices in FRM is that it can lead to fragmentation within FRM systems, in terms of the distribution of responsibilities between actors and governing rules enacted within different policy domains. This can prove detrimental to the effectiveness of FRM. Building upon the notion of fragmentation developed in legal and governance literature, this paper introduces the concept of ‘bridging mechanisms’, i.e. instruments that remedy fragmentation by enhancing interconnectedness between relevant actors through information transfer, coordination and cooperation. This paper develops a typology of both fragmentation and bridging mechanisms and analyzes their relations, partly drawing upon empirical research conducted within the EU ‘STAR-FLOOD’ project. In turn, this paper presents a novel interdisciplinary methodological framework for evaluating the degree and quality of the interconnectedness within fragmented domestic FRM systems. A pragmatic, flexible and broadly applicable tool, this framework is both suited for academic purposes, as well as for practically oriented analysis and (re)development of fragmented FRM systems, and other fragmented systems, within the EU and abroad.

Diversification of Flood Risk Management (FRM) Strategies is widely regarded as a necessary step forward in terms of lessening the likelihood and magnitude of flooding, as well as minimizing the exposure of people and property, and in turn the disruption, economic damage, health impacts and other adverse consequences that ensue when floods occur. Thus diversification is often heralded as an essential condition for enhancing societal resilience to flooding. However, an inevitable consequence of diversifying strategies and practices in FRM is that it can lead to fragmentation within FRM systems, in terms of the distribution of responsibilities between actors and governing rules enacted within different policy domains. This can prove detrimental to the effectiveness of FRM. Building upon the notion of fragmentation developed in legal and governance literature, this paper introduces the concept of ‘bridging mechanisms’, i.e. instruments that remedy fragmentation by enhancing interconnectedness between relevant actors through information transfer, coordination and cooperation. This paper develops a typology of both fragmentation and bridging mechanisms and analyzes their relations, partly drawing upon empirical research conducted within the EU ‘STAR-FLOOD’ project. In turn, this paper presents a novel interdisciplinary methodological framework for evaluating the degree and quality of the interconnectedness within fragmented domestic FRM systems. A pragmatic, flexible and broadly applicable tool, this framework is both suited for academic purposes, as well as for practically oriented analysis and (re)development of fragmented FRM systems, and other fragmented systems, within the EU and abroad.

Contains fulltext : 159329.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) The Netherlands has a long tradition of flood risk management, due to its special physical location in the delta of four major river systems. This low-lying country is historically characterised by a ‘fight against water’. The Flood Risk Governance Arrangement of the Netherlands is characterised by a strong focus on reducing flood probability and governmental responsibility. A key characteristic is the statutory right to flood protection from the state. The arrangement of actors, rules, resources and discourses is focused on probability-reduction by administrative organisations. Nevertheless, in recent years a number of changes towards a broader number of Flood Risk Management Strategies (FRMSs) can be observed and different modes of governance are starting to emerge. This report provides insights into the ways in which flood risk governance is changing in the Netherlands, as well as into the extent to which the system enables or constrains societal resilience to flooding. This report is a deliverable of the EU 7th Framework Project STAR-FLOOD (www.starflood.eu). STAR-FLOOD focuses on Flood Risk Governance. The project investigates strategies for dealing with flood risks in 18 vulnerable urban regions in six European countries: England in the UK, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Poland and Sweden. The project assesses Flood Risk Governance Arrangements from a combined public administration and legal perspective, with the aim of making European regions more resilient to flood risks. This report is the country report on the Netherlands and forms the empirical core of the STAR-FLOOD research project, in which analyses, explanations and evaluations of The Netherlands, including three case studies, have been performed.

This thesis is about adaptation to climate change in Dutch water management. Within this framework, questions about legal responsibilities and (effects of) threatening liability have been addressed. However no clear adaptation obligations have been found in international and European law, especially the international climate debate proved to have an agenda-setting effect. Within both the EU and the Netherlands, adaptation policy has been developed. The due care principle (codified in the Dutch GALA) holds a general obligation, however, for Dutch water management authorities to take (uncertain) climate risks into account in their policy decisions, especially when it comes to implementing their legal duties of care. This obligation requires further elaboration in the Dutch Water Act. It has been found that mainly the criteria of unlawfulness and causality expectedly will raise a special threshold in the establishment of tort liability within the adaptation to climate change framework. Nevertheless, tort liability for climate damage cannot be excluded. For the application of the Dutch system of ‘nadeelcompensatie’ (compensation for loss due to lawful government conduct) it should, on the one hand, be assumed that adaptation measures are to be regarded as ‘normal social developments’, which means victims should in principle tolerate measures being taken despite their disadvantages. On the other hand, the uncertainty of climate risks under certain circumstances is likely to influence the criterion of the ‘normal social risk’, granting victims a higher chance of successfully claiming compensation. Furthermore, the system of liability for structural defects (article 6:174 of the Dutch Civil Code) should not be applicable in cases water damage occurs by defects in water control structures, mainly because application of this liability system is hardly compatible with the integral management tasks in Dutch water management . At last, unlike the so-called prevention doctrine suggests, water management authorities in their different decisions at different stages of the adaptation process turn out not primarily and certainly not only to be affected by threatening liability. The prevention doctrine in all its simplicity seems to be unsuitable for making predictions in complex situations, as these may occur within the framework of adaptation to climate change in Dutch water management

Zoet water is een schaars goed. Dat geldt ook voor Nederland, waar iedereen – de overheid incluis – zich doorgaans drukker maakt over het voorkomen van overstromingen en wateroverlast, dan over het omgaan met zoetwatertekorten. Maar af en toe leiden droge perioden tot droogte en ontstaat er waterschaarste doordat de vraag naar zoet water groter is dan het aanbod. Aan de kust ervaart men problemen door verzilting. Door klimaatverandering neemt de kans op droogte toe als gevolg van veranderende neerslagpatronen. Dit betekent dat een rechtvaardige verdeling van water steeds belangrijker wordt.

This thesis is about adaptation to climate change in Dutch water management. Within this framework, questions about legal responsibilities and (effects of) threatening liability have been addressed. However no clear adaptation obligations have been found in international and European law, especially the international climate debate proved to have an agenda-setting effect. Within both the EU and the Netherlands, adaptation policy has been developed. The due care principle (codified in the Dutch GALA) holds a general obligation, however, for Dutch water management authorities to take (uncertain) climate risks into account in their policy decisions, especially when it comes to implementing their legal duties of care. This obligation requires further elaboration in the Dutch Water Act. It has been found that mainly the criteria of unlawfulness and causality expectedly will raise a special threshold in the establishment of tort liability within the adaptation to climate change framework. Nevertheless, tort liability for climate damage cannot be excluded. For the application of the Dutch system of ‘nadeelcompensatie’ (compensation for loss due to lawful government conduct) it should, on the one hand, be assumed that adaptation measures are to be regarded as ‘normal social developments’, which means victims should in principle tolerate measures being taken despite their disadvantages. On the other hand, the uncertainty of climate risks under certain circumstances is likely to influence the criterion of the ‘normal social risk’, granting victims a higher chance of successfully claiming compensation. Furthermore, the system of liability for structural defects (article 6:174 of the Dutch Civil Code) should not be applicable in cases water damage occurs by defects in water control structures, mainly because application of this liability system is hardly compatible with the integral management tasks in Dutch water management . At last, unlike the so-called prevention doctrine suggests, water management authorities in their different decisions at different stages of the adaptation process turn out not primarily and certainly not only to be affected by threatening liability. The prevention doctrine in all its simplicity seems to be unsuitable for making predictions in complex situations, as these may occur within the framework of adaptation to climate change in Dutch water management

Zoet water is een schaars goed. Dat geldt ook voor Nederland, waar iedereen – de overheid incluis – zich doorgaans drukker maakt over het voorkomen van overstromingen en wateroverlast, dan over het omgaan met zoetwatertekorten. Maar af en toe leiden droge perioden tot droogte en ontstaat er waterschaarste doordat de vraag naar zoet water groter is dan het aanbod. Aan de kust ervaart men problemen door verzilting. Door klimaatverandering neemt de kans op droogte toe als gevolg van veranderende neerslagpatronen. Dit betekent dat een rechtvaardige verdeling van water steeds belangrijker wordt.

With the introduction of the Water Framework Directive in 2001, EC water law adopted both a governance approach and a river basin approach. These new approaches are characterised by a high level of proceduralisation and by dividing the EU territory into river basins. These characteristics emphasise the need for transboundary cooperation in water management, both on the international and the regional level. Although there is a long tradition of transboundary cooperation on the international level, this level has its difficulties and limits, which urges the need for regional transboundary cooperation in river basin management. There are several instruments available to shape cooperation at the regional level, but there is still little experience in cooperation between water management authorities at that level. After describing current transitions in EC water law, we explore some instruments and their possibilities for transboundary cooperation on both levels, with a slight tendency toward the regional level.