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Objective: This study explores the validity of Paget’s disease of bone (PDB) reported in unpublished skeletal reports, based on macroscopic analysis alone. \ud Materials: The high prevalence of ‘suspected’ Paget’s disease (10.7%) in an early modern sample from St John’s the Evangelist Church in Redhill, Surrey is reassessed.\ud Methods: Signs of PDB were examined in 53 well-preserved adults aged 35+ years using macroscopic, radiographic and histological techniques.\ud Results: Macroscopic features of PDB were identified in 8 individuals (15%), with 5 individuals later rejected using radiography. Two individuals showed classic radiographic features of PDB, with a third presenting possible features in radiography (5.7%). These three cases were confirmed by histological analysis. \ud Conclusions: PDB should not be suggested as a single diagnosis in cases of bone hypertrophy without confirmation using radiography. \ud Significance: The growing popularity of ‘big data’ projects and limited collections access means that unpublished cases of PDB are often included in large scale analyses, impacting our understanding of the evolution of this disease. Using macroscopic analysis alone leads to overdiagnosis. Histological analysis is unnecessary when radiographic features are present, but provides a useful diagnostic step in long bones in advanced cases of PBD.\ud Limitations: The radiographic sample in this study was limited to three individuals.\ud Suggestions for Further Research: The conclusion that radiography alone can be used to identify PDB in archaeological cases merits further research on a larger number of cases.

High-energy (1-100 keV) electrons can coherently couple to plasmonic and dielectric nanostructures creating cathodoluminescence (CL) of which the spectral features reveal details of the material's resonant modes at deep-subwavelength spatial resolution. While CL provides fundamental insight in optical modes, detecting its phase has remained elusive. Here, we introduce Fourier-transform CL holography as a method to determine the far-field phase distribution of scattered plasmonic fields. We record far-field interferences between a transition radiation reference field and surface plasmons scattered from plasmonic nanoholes, nanocubes and helical nano-apertures and reconstruct the angle-resolved phase distributions. From the derived fields we derive the relative strength and phase of induced scattering dipoles. The data show that each electron wavepacket collapses at the sample surface and coherently excites transition radiation and surface plasmon quanta. Fourier-transform CL holography opens up a new world of coherent light scattering and surface wave studies with nanoscale spatial resolution.

Background Reducing meat consumption could help to protect the natural environment and promote population health. Interventions restructuring physical micro-environments might help to change habitual behaviour. We synthesised the scientific evidence pertaining to whether, and which, interventions restructuring physical micro-environments effectively reduce the demand for meat. Methods We did a systematic review of quantitative studies evaluating the effectiveness of interventions restructuring physical micro-environments to reduce the demand for meat. We identified relevant records by searching six electronic databases (CAB Abstracts, Embase, PsycINFO, Science Citation Index, MEDLINE, and Dissertations & Theses) on Aug 31, 2017, contacting experts, screening publicly accessible online resources, and searching references. We included studies that evaluated the effectiveness of interventions restructuring physical micro-environments to reduce the demand for meat, defined as the actual or intended consumption, purchase, or selection of meat in real or virtual environments. We extracted data pertaining to the study samples, the interventions, and meat demand at the follow-up closest to intervention completion and at the longest follow-up, with the former representing our primary outcome. We synthesised data narratively and did a qualitative comparative analysis to identify configurations of intervention characteristics associated with, and those not found to be associated with, significant reductions in meat demand. Our Systematic Review is registered with PROSPERO, number CRD42017081532. Results Of 10 733 titles and abstracts screened for eligibility, we assessed 60 full papers and included 14 papers reporting on 18 studies with 22 intervention conditions. Three interventions reducing the portion size of meat servings reduced meat consumption in randomised trials. Three interventions providing meat alternatives with supporting educational material were associated with reduced meat demand in pre-post design studies. Three of four interventions altering the sensory properties (eg, visual presentation) of meat or meat alternatives at point of purchase reduced meat demand in randomised trials. Four interventions repositioning meat products to be less prominent at point of purchase were associated with lower meat demand, but only two such interventions reached statistical significance in a randomised trial and a multiple treatment reversal design. Only one of five interventions manipulating the description of meat or meat alternatives at point of purchase was associated with lower meat demand in a multiple treatment reversal design. Evidence from randomised trials evaluating a pricing intervention or interventions restructuring several aspects of micro-environments was too scarce or inconsistent to be conclusive. The results from our qualitative comparative analysis supported the findings of this narrative synthesis. Interpretation Some interventions restructuring physical micro-environments could help to promote lower demand for meat. Interventions reducing portion sizes of meat servings, providing meat alternatives, or changing the sensory properties of meat and meat alternatives at point of purchase offered the most promise in the context of experimental studies.

In 2008, a group of conservation scientists compiled a list of 100 priority questions for the conservation of the world's biodiversity. However, now almost a decade later, no one has yet published a study gauging how much progress has been made in addressing these 100 high‐priority questions in the peer‐reviewed literature. We took a first step toward reexamining the 100 questions to identify key knowledge gaps that remain. Through a combination of a questionnaire and a literature review, we evaluated each question on the basis of 2 criteria: relevance and effort. We defined highly relevant questions as those that – if answered – would have the greatest impact on global biodiversity conservation and quantified effort based on the number of review publications addressing a particular question, which we used as a proxy for research effort. Using this approach, we identified a set of questions that, despite being perceived as highly relevant, have been the focus of relatively few review publications over the past 10 years. These questions covered a broad range of topics but predominantly tackled 3 major themes: conservation and management of freshwater ecosystems, role of societal structures in shaping interactions between people and the environment, and impacts of conservation interventions. We believe these questions represent important knowledge gaps that have received insufficient attention and may need to be prioritized in future research.

1. Theory predicts that mothers should adaptively adjust reproductive investment depending on current reserves and future reproductive opportunities. Females in better intrinsic state, or with more resources, should invest more in current reproduction than those with fewer resources. Across the lifespan, investment may increase as future reproductive opportunities decline, yet may also decline with reductions in intrinsic state. 2. Across many species, larger mothers produce larger offspring, but there is no theoretical consensus on why this is so. This pattern may be driven by variation in maternal state such as nutrition, yet few studies measure both size and nutritional state or attempt to tease apart confounding effects of size and age. 3. Viviparous tsetse flies (Glossina species) offer an excellent system to explore patterns of reproductive investment: females produce large, single offspring sequentially over the course of their relatively long life. Thus, per-brood reproductive effort can be quantified by offspring size. 4. While most tsetse reproduction research has been conducted on laboratory colonies, maternal investment was investigated in this study using a unique field method where mothers were collected as they deposited larvae, allowing simultaneous mother-offspring measurements under natural conditions. 5. It was found that larger mothers and those with a higher fat content produced larger offspring, and there was a trend for older mothers to produce slightly larger offspring. 6. The present results highlight the importance of measuring maternal nutritional state, rather than size alone, when considering maternal investment in offspring. Implications for understanding vector population dynamics are also discussed.

Piezoelectric materials exhibit high electromechanical coupling that allows them to both generate an electrical signal when strained and, conversely, to produce a strain under an applied electric field. This coupling has led to the use of these materials for a variety of sensing and actuation purposes. One unique application of these materials is their use as self-sensing actuators where both the sensing and actuation functions are performed by a single patch of material. Since the actuation and sensing voltages both exist simultaneously in the piezoelectric material, a specially designed electric circuit, referred to as a bridge circuit, is required to realize the concept. Configuration of the material in this manner is advantageous for control systems due to the enhanced stability associated when collocated control is applied. While certain advantages result from this type of system, precise equilibrium of the bridge circuit is required to achieve stability. This equilibrium is easy to achieve in theory, but difficult in practice due to the thermal dependence of the piezoelectric material's dielectric constant. This study will investigate a novel method of accounting for these changes through the use of thermal switches to passively adjust the bridge circuit and maintain a balanced state. The proposed concept will be theoretically modeled and simulated in a vibration control application to identify the thermal range for stability with and without the array of switches. It will be shown that, through the use of nine thermal switches, the stable operating range can be increased by 95 °C while maintaining vibration control performance.

C ORROSION is an extremely costly problem for industries and business sectors throughout the world and results in severe economic impact. In 1998, Congress funded the Department of Transportation and the Federal Highway Administration to estimate the total cost of corrosion on theU.S. economy and provide corrosion prevention guidelines. The final results of the survey estimated the extrapolated total direct corrosion cost to be $278 billion per year, which is 3.14%of the gross domestic product in theUnited States [1]. In 1996, the U.S. spent $1.7 billion on commercial aircraft maintenance and lost $0.3 billion due to corrosion downtime [2]. The “find it and fix it” maintenance practices of the airline industry are costly and, in some cases, inadequate. The present note will focus on identifying a detection method for the galvanic type of corrosion that plagues aircraft. Many techniques exist for detecting corrosion in aircraft; however, these methods are typically inadequate due to the intrinsic human error present and are difficult and time-intensive to implement. Two general categories of corrosion monitoring techniques exist, nondestructive evaluation (NDE) and structural health monitoring (SHM). NDEmethods include techniques such as visual, eddy current, ultrasonics, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, color visual imaging, radiography, and infrared imaging [3]. The second class of detection is SHM and is typically superior due to the automated nature of the sensing system. Examples of SHM systems used in aircraft include the monitoring of pH and humidity, acoustic emissions, ion concentration, and chemical potential detectors. The present study will provide results on a series of tests performed using piezoelectric-based impedance techniques, which are a newer and less developed method of performing SHM. These methods use the electromechanical coupling present in piezoelectric materials to determinewhen structural changes have occurred.When the piezoelectric material is bonded to the structure, its electrical impedance is coupled to themechanical impedance (a function of the mass, stiffness, and damping) of the structure, providing a means for characterizing it. As damage occurs or progresses, the electrical impedance measured from the piezoelectric materials shifts, which can be quantified using statistical methods, providing a method of measuring the damage present. For a detailed review of the impedance method and it application see Park et al. [4] However, the ability to use this technique to measure the small changes associated with the onset of corrosion has not been identified. This note will experimentally evaluate the use of piezoelectric materials in conjunction with the piezoelectric-based impedance method to detect, locate, and quantify precrack surface corrosion damage. The impedance variations caused by changes in corrosion location, pit depth, and surface coverage will be correlated to the damage metric, which is calculated from the measured impedance signatures.

With the recent advances in wireless technology and low power electronics the idea of capturing the ambient energy surrounding a system and using it to provide electrical power to devices that do not rely on external power supplies has received a significant amount of attention. Much of this attention has been aimed at the use of piezoelectric materials to capture ambient vibrations. However, the energy generated by such materials is far too small to directly power most of the electronic devices. Therefore, in the present study a Seebeck heat pump is used to convert the ambient thermal gradient generated by solar radiation and waste heat into usable electrical energy. To increase the amount of thermal radiation captured by the power harvesting device, the hot side of the thermoelectric generator is placed in a small greenhouse, while the cold side is secured against a thermal sink, such as a highway bridge. The power generated by the thermoelectric device is shown to be substantially greater than that produced by piezoelectric materials and the ability to recharge a discharged battery is demonstrated. This research focuses on the use of thermal electric generators in a passive configuration where only conduction is used to remove heat from the device. The majority of previous studies have implemented convective heat transfer to increase power output and have only reported gross energy production. The results show that thermal electric materials when used in a passive fashion can form effective power sources with the ability to quickly recharge discharged batteries.

Self-sensing actuation allows a single piezoelectric (PZT) element to be simultaneously used as both a sensor and an actuator. A specially designed electric circuit, referred to as a bridge circuit, is required to realize the concept. However, precise equilibrium of the bridge circuit is extremely difficult to obtain because of the continuous changes in environmental conditions. In this study, the effects of an unbalanced bridge circuit are analytically and experimentally evaluated in an attempt to quantify the variations in the PZT capacitance in terms of performances in vibration testing and control. Once the dynamic characteristics of self-sensing actuation are identified and understood, methods for improving the system’s performance are developed by utilizing capacitors in series and in parallel with the PZT patch. The analytical and experimental results clearly indicate that the new design scheme increases the stability of the system. However, the increase in stability comes at the cost of the increase in the power required for the control system.

This chapter focuses on the occurrence of the five mycotoxins in foods imported into the United States during the years 2000 to 2006: aflatoxins, patulin, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, and ochratoxin A. All of these mycotoxins have been found worldwide in foods and are of regulatory concern to the FDA. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified the naturally occurring aflatoxins as being carcinogenic to humans, group 1A; aflatoxin M1was classified as 2B, indicating limited evidence for carcinogenicity to humans. Patulin is a toxic metabolite produced by fungi of several genera, including Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Byssochylamys. These fungi can grow on a variety of foods, including fruits. Deoxynivalenol (DON), commonly known as vomitoxin, belongs to a class of sesquiterpenoid mycotoxins that are referred to as trichothecenes. Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a naturally occurring toxic fungal metabolite produced by certain species of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium. Data on OTA levels in imported foods from 2000 to 2006 are shown in this chapter. The FDA organized and cosponsored the International Workshop on Mycotoxins at College Park, Maryland, 22 to 26 July 2002. This workshop was an international outreach effort by the FDA to assist economically challenged nations worldwide in minimizing the problem of mycotoxin contamination of foodstuffs in their respective countries. The extent of mycotoxin contamination of foods is greatly influenced, in part, by uncontrollable environmental conditions that prevail during the growth, harvesting, and processing of crops that are used for the preparation of human food.

A liquid chromatographic (LC) method for determining deoxynivalenol (DON) in white flour, whole wheat flour, and bran at or above the U.S. Food and Drug Administration advisory level of 1 μg/g was evaluated by an interlaboratory study. Test samples of processed wheat (flour and bran) were extracted by blending with acetonitrile-water (84 + 16). Extracts were filtered and passed through a solid-phase extraction (SPE) column. The eluate was then chromatographed on a reversed-phase LC column with a water-methanol gradient. DON was measured at 220 nm. Naturally contaminated white flour, whole wheat flour, and bran samples and spiking solutions of DON to be added to the 3 commodities at 0.5,1.0, and 2.0 μg/g were sent to 4 collaborators in Kansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Washington states. Three collaborators completed the study. Average recoveries of DON from the 3 commodities spiked at 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 (μg/g were 94, 87, and 97%, respectively. Within-laboratory relative standard deviations for repeatability (RSDr) ranged from 3.1 to 21.7% and between-laboratory relative standard deviations for reproducibility (RSDR) ranged from 10.8 to 38.7%. On the basis of the results of this study, the SPE/LC method for DON in white flour, whole wheat flour, and bran was adopted as a peer-verified method by AOAC INTERNATIONAL

This chapter explores the controversial history and contemporary practice of an immensely popular devotion, sketching the charismatic role of its originator, Saint Faustina, and the various artistic representations of the Divine Mercy that have been created and circulated. It interrogates a highly influential contemporary form of Catholic spirituality as a socio-cultural as well as subjective, material and experiential form of belief and practice. Focused on an image arising out of a visionary experience by a simple girl, the framing narratives make explicit the association between this simplicity and the spirit of trust which lies at the heart of the devotion. The Divine Mercy images and prayers have achieved a striking global resonance through their scope for personal individuation and agency, whether clerical or lay. This very vitality has proved challenging and ultimately uncontainable. Keywords: Catholic spirituality; devotion; Divine Mercy images; Saint Faustina

A liquid chromatographic (LC) method for determining deoxynivalenol (DON) in white flour, whole wheat flour, and bran was developed. A 25 g test portion was extracted with acetonitrile-water (84 + 16), and the extract was filtered and applied to a column containing a combination of charcoal, Celite, and other adsorbents. The eluate was then chromatographed on a silica-based, reversedphase LC column by using a gradient of water and methanol. DON was measured at 220 nm. Average recoveries of DON from white flour, whole wheat flour, and bran spiked at 1 fig/g were 88,86, and 85%, respectively. The limit of determination of the method was

Mycotoxins are considered unavoidable contaminants in foods and feeds because agronomic technology has not yet advanced to the stage at which preharvest infection of susceptible crops by fungi can be eliminated. The aflatoxins have received greater attention than any of the other mycotoxins because of their demonstrated carcinogenic effects in susceptible animals and their acute toxic effects in humans. Since 1965, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has enforced regulatory limits on the concentrations of these toxins in foods and feeds involved in interstate commerce. The FDA routinely monitors the food and feed industries through compliance programs to ensure that the levels of exposure to these toxins are kept as low as practical. This report summarizes data generated from compliance programs on aflatoxins for the fiscal years 1989, 1990, and the first half of 1991. Commodities sampled included peanuts and peanut products, tree nuts, corn and corn products, cottonseed, and milk. Higher than usual levels of contamination were found in corn examined from all areas of the United States in 1989 as a result of the severe drought that affected the 1988 corn crop. The drought in parts of the South and Southeast in 1990 resulted in increased contamination in corn and peanuts from those areas. A review of the surveillance data obtained on deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, sterigmatocystin, penicillic acid, and patulin over the years along with available toxicological data for these mycotoxins indicated that no regulatory actions were warranted. The lack of sufficient surveillance data on other mycotoxins that occur in the United States can be attributed in part to the unavailability of reliable analytical methodology.

The Caerwys tufa in North Wales (UK) contains basal deposits thought to represent carbonate precipitation during the Late-glacial interstadial. These deposits are used to test whether stable isotope data record all or part of a warming-cooling-warming trend through the transition of the Late-glacial interstadial, Younger Dryas stadial and early Holocene. The d18O values and molluscan abundance data suggest that deposition of the Late-glacial tufa occurred mainly during a relatively warm period (? GL-1c or 1e) followed by cooling, the latter likely to be the transition into the Younger Dryas stadial. Tufa deposition is not recorded in the coldest part of the stadial: it is replaced by a sandy horizon. d13C values around -8.5‰ in the basal Late-glacial interstadial tufas show there was a significant influence from isotopically light soil-zone CO2, consistent with development of birch scrub and woodland further south in North Wales. During climatic cooling into the Younger Dryas stadial a 1‰ decrease in tufa d13C is interpreted to represent decreasing phytoplankton photosynthetic activity in pools causing less isotopic enrichment of the tufa d13C. In the (pre-9000 cal. years BP) early Holocene tufas at Caerwys, palaeo-water temperatures calculated from d18O in tufa calcite and from shell carbonate of Lymnaea peregra agree well and suggest summer water temperatures in the range 13 to 16.5°C. d13C data from these early Holocene pool-micrite tufas demonstrate that phytoplanktonic photosynthetic activity within the water column resumed under the warmer conditions causing isotopic enrichment of the tufa d13C values. Le tuf de Caerwys situé au nord du Pays de Galles (Grande-Bretagne) contient, à sa base, des dépôts à précipitations carbonatées, attribués à l'interstade du Tardiglaciaire. Ces dépôts sont utilisés pour tester la validité des isotopes stables dans l'enregistrement d'une séquence de température chaud-froid-chaud au cours de la transition Interstade du Tardiglaciaire-Dryas récent- début Holocène. Les valeurs de d18O ainsi que la courbe d'abondance des malacofaunes indiquent que le tuf tardiglaciaire s'est déposé au cours d'une phase tempérée (GL-1c ou 1e ?) suivie par un refroidissement qui pourrait correspondre à la transition vers le Dryas récent. Au cours de la phase la plus froide de cet épisode stadiaire la formation du tuf cesse et la sédimentation devient sableuse. Les valeurs de d13C qui se placent autour de -8.5‰ dans le tuf interstadiaire de base montrent une influence significative de la zone CO2 du sol isotopiquement faible qui est cohérente avec l'extension vers le sud de forêts de bouleaux dans la partie nord du Pays de Galles. Pendant le refroidissement du Dryas récent, la baisse de 1‰ du d13C du tuf est interprétée comme la représentation de la diminution de l'activité photosynthétique du phytoplancton dans les mares qui est la cause d'un enrichissement isotopique plus faible du d13C du tuf. Au sein des tout premiers niveaux de tuf holocènes (pré-9000 cal.an BP) à Caerwys, les paléo-températures de l'eau calculées à partir du d18O de la calcite du tuf et des carbonates des coquilles de Lymnaea peregra sont en bon accord et suggèrent des estimations des températures estivales de l'eau situées entre 13 et 16.5°C. Les données de d13C obtenues dans ces tufs de mare-micrite du début de l'Holocène démontrent que l'activité photosynthétique du phytoplancton à l'intérieur de la colonne d'eau reprend quand les conditions sont plus chaudes et provoquent un enrichissement isotopique des valuers de d13C du tuf.

Corrosion begins as moisture penetrates the protective barrier of a surface, starting an electrochemical process which over time leads to surface pitting. The combined action of mechanical stresses and corrosion induced pitting reduces structural integrity as the pits enlarge to form nucleation sites for surface cracks, which propagate into through-the-thickness cracks. In most cases, the total mass loss due to corrosion within the structure is small; however, significant reductions in mechanical strength and fatigue life can occur in the corroded material leading to advanced crack growth rates or fast fracture. Since the structural damage due to localized corrosion pitting is small and the crack growth rates may be large, traditional inspections methods and "find it and fix it" maintenance approaches may lead to catastrophic mechanical failures. Therefore, precise structural health monitoring of pre-crack surface corrosion is paramount to understanding and predicting the effect corrosion has on the fatigue life and integrity of a structure. In this study, the impedance method was experimentally tested to detect and quantify the onset and growth of pre-crack surface corrosion in beam and plate like structures. Experimental results indicate the method is an effective detection and tracking tool for corrosion induced structural damage in plates and beams. Additionally, impedance based monitoring of the corrosive effect on the piezoelectric sensors may serve as a useful tool for predicting corrosion growth rates on the surface of structures.

Corrosion begins as moisture penetrates the protective barrier of a surface, starting an electrochemical process which over time leads to surface pitting. The combined action of mechanical stresses and corrosion induced pitting reduces structural integrity as the pits enlarge to form nucleation sites for surface cracks, which propagate into through-thickness cracks. In most cases, the total mass loss due to corrosion within the structure is small; however, significant reductions in mechanical strength and fatigue life can occur in the corroded material leading to advanced crack growth rates or fast fracture. Since the structural damage due to localized corrosion pitting is small and the crack growth rates may be large, traditional inspections methods and "find it and fix it" maintenance approaches may lead to catastrophic mechanical failures. Therefore, precise structural health monitoring of pre-crack surface corrosion is paramount to understanding and predicting the effect corrosion has on the fatigue life and integrity of a structure. In this first third of this study, the impedance method was experimentally tested to detect and the onset and growth of the earliest stages of pre-crack surface corrosion in beam and plate like structures. Experimental results indicate the impedance method is an effective detection tool for corrosion induced structural damage in plates and beams. For corrosion surface coverages less than 1.5% and pit depths of less than 25 microns (light corrosion), the impedance method could successfully detect corrosion on plates and beams at distances up to 150 cm from the sensor location. Since the impedance method is a proven tool for corrosion detection, it makes sense to determine how well the method can quantify and track key corrosion variables like location, pit depth, and surface coverage. In order to make fatigue life adjustments for corroded structures it is necessary to quantify those variables. Thus, the second portion of this study uses the impedance method to quantify corrosion location, pit depth, and location. Three separate tests are conducted on beam-like structures to determine how well the damage metrics from the impedance method correlate to the key corrosion variables. From the three tests, it is found that the impedance method correlates best with the changes in corrosion pit depth, so if combined with data from routine maintenance it would be possible to use the impedance method data in a predictive or tracking manner. The impedance method can be correlated to location and surface coverage changes, but the relationship is not as strong. Other NDE techniques like Lamb Waves could use the same sensors to quantify corrosion location, and perhaps surface coverage. The impedance method can detect and quantify pre-crack surface corrosion which leads to shortened fatigue life in structures; however, the sensors must be robust enough to withstand corrosive environments. The last portion of this study tests the following: corrosive effect on Lead Zirconate Titnate (PZT) and Macro Fiber Composites (MFC) sensors, Kapton protected MFC actuators for corrosion detection, and determines if corrosion damage can be sensed on the side of the structure opposite the damage. Sensor recommendations regarding the use of piezoelectric sensors in corrosive environments are made. Master of Science

More than 50 countries have enacted or proposed regulations for the control of aflatoxins in foods and/or feeds, and at least 15 of these countries also have regulations for permitted levels of contamination by other mycotoxins. Since 1965, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has used action levels to control aflatoxins in its compliance programs. Cooperative programs with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, state agencies, and industry also have been used to keep exposure to aflatoxins as low as practical. Soybeans support the growth of many mold species, which can produce toxins such as aflatoxins, trichothecenes (such as T-2), and cytochalasins. The natural occurrence of these toxins in soybeans has not been a problem. Limited surveys of soybeans and soy-based infant formulas have not revealed significant contamination. The sequence of events that leads to consideration of a mycotoxin for control programs and other regulatory activity includes determination of a toxic response, isolation and identification of the toxin, development of a sampling plan and method of analysis, and determination of incidence and levels of contamination of the susceptible commodity. The quality of soybeans can vary widely, depending on environmental, agronomic, and storage conditions. products susceptible to contamination from improper storage are subject to regulatory action on a case-by-case basis. The government-industry cooperative programs have been successful in limiting human exposure to aflatoxins.

I. INTRODUCTION Agricultural crops growing in the field are subject to invasion by many fungal species present in the soil. Under optimal conditions of temperature and moisture, some of these fungal species may infect growing plants and produce secondary toxic metabolites; these metabolites are referred to as mycotoxins. As plants mature and grain kernels develop, some fungal species may continue to proliferate and produce toxic metabolites that persist and are not eliminated or degraded during harvesting operations. If harvested grains (crops) are not stored properly, it is possible that some fungi brought in from the field on the crops may either continue to grow and produce mycotoxins, or may gradually be replaced by fungi that can proliferate under various storage conditions and produce additional mycotoxins (1). Mycotoxins can therefore enter the food supply during preharvest and postharvest periods. Small amounts of these substances may be legally permitted in foods and feeds, provided the amounts involved are not considered to be injurious to human and animal health.

The field desorption mass spectra of several underivatized cyanogenic glycosides exhibit molecular ions or ions derived from the parent compound by protonation and alkali metal cationization. Abundant fragment ions are present and can be readily related to structure. Significant deviations from established fragmentation pathways are observed due to the nature of the aglycone. The ability to successfully determine the presence of cyanogenic glycosides by field desorption is demonstrated in crude extracts isolated from Vicia sativa, a food-contaminating plant material.

For many years it has been known that plants, when subjected to stress, produce "unusual" metabolites in response to that stress. Some of these metabolites are toxic and, consequently are of concern from the standpoint of contamination of foods. Each year additional stress metabolites are isolated and identified from plants and plant products subjected to stress conditions; these conditions include infection of the plant by microorganisms, mechanical damage during processing or storage, exposure to temperature extremes and the like. The need for an intensive research effort into formation, isolation and characterization, and toxicological evaluation of such metabolites in plants used for human food is discussed.

A sample preparation method has been developed that provides a nitric acid-hydrogen peroxide digestion of plant tissue when it is heated internally by the oscillating electromagnetic field generated in a microwave oven. The total elemental concentration for barium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, sulfur, and zinc can be determined by inductively coupled argon plasma emission spectroscopy after sample preparation in a microwave oven. The method is rapid and provides quantitative results that agree with certified values for 4 National Bureau of Standards Standard Reference Materials: 1570 Spinach, 1572 Citrus Leaves, 1573 Tomato Leaves, and 1575 Pine Needles.

In a review presented at the first FAO/WHO/UNEP Conference on Mycotoxins in 1977, the occurrence of aflatoxins, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, citrinin, trichothecenes, patulin, penicillic acid, and the ergot alkaloids was indicated to be significant in naturally contaminated foods and feeds. The information presented on aflatoxin contamination greatly exceeded that for all other mycotoxins combined. This study reviews the worldwide levels and occurrence of mycotoxins in various commodities since 1976. Comparatively few countries have lowered the acceptable levels for aflatoxins in susceptible commodities. However, intensified efforts are needed to establish control of aflatoxin levels in the global food supply, particularly in peanuts, tree nuts, corn, and animal feeds. Extensive deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination of grains, especially wheat, was demonstrated. Co-contamination of grains by Fusarium toxins, especially DON and nivalenol, with zearalenone to a lesser extent, was reported. However, more information on co-occurrence of Fusarium toxins in cereals should be developed. When contamination of feeds by ochratoxin A was significant, this toxin occurred in swine kidney and smoked meats in high levels. On the basis of occurrence and/or toxicity, patulin and penicillic acid contamination of foods does not appear to be of real concern. More recent developments suggest, however, that expanded monitoring studies of Alternaria toxins, moniliformin, citrinin, cyclopiazonic acid, penitrem A, and ergot alkaloids are indicated.

Aflatoxins, metabolic products of the molds Aspergillus flams and A. parasiticus, may occur in foods and feeds. These toxins cannot be entirely avoided or eliminated from foods or feeds by current agronomic and manufacturing processes and are considered unavoidable contaminants. To limit aflatoxin exposure, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has set action levels for these toxins in foods and feeds involved in interstate commerce. FDA continually monitors food and feed industries through compliance programs. This report summarizes data generated from compliance programs on aflatoxins for the fiscal year 1986. Commodities sampled included peanuts and peanut products, corn and corn products, tree nuts, cottonseed, milk, spices, manufactured products, and miscellaneous foods and feeds. Correlations were highest between aflatoxin contamination and geographical areas for corn/corn products and cottonseed/cottonseed meal. Higher incidences of aflatoxin contamination in corn and corn products designated for human consumption were observed in samples collected in the southeastern states (32 and 28%, respectively). A higher incidence of contamination was observed in corn designated for animal feed from Arkansas-Texas (74%) than from the southeastern states (47%). Only 3% of feed corn from corn belt states contained detectable aflatoxins. All aflatoxin-contaminated cottonseed was collected in the Arizona-California area; 80% of cottonseed meal analyzed from this area also contained detectable levels of aflatoxins. No aflatoxin Mi was detected in any of the 182 samples of fluid milk and milk products examined. The percentage of samples that contain measurable levels of aflatoxins is expected to vary with commodities from year to year; thus, the 1986 information can be used as a baseline for comparison to determine the effectiveness of control efforts exerted by the food and feed industries.

Chemical changes that occur in the proteins, nucleotides, and lipids of fish tissue during storage at low temperatures were investigated. Homogenized tissue, prepared from fresh rock-fish (striped hass, Roccus species), was stored up to six days at temperatures from -10° to 4°C and then analyzed. At 0°C and below, the solubility of myofibrillar proteins decreased. There were also changes in polyacrylamide gel electrophoretic patterns of protein extracts. The total nucleotide content decreased rapidly at all temperatures. The lipids were extracted from each sample and separated into neutral lipids, phospholipids, and free fatty acids by column chromatography. The fatty acid composition of each fraction was determined by gas chromatography. In the fresh tissue, polyunsaturated acids occurred in greatest proportion in the free fatty acid and phospholipid fractions, whereas inono-unsaturated acids were inofe highly concentrated in the neutral lipids. The percentages of saturated acids were approximately the same in all fractions. During storage, there were considerably larger losses of individual acids from phospholipids than from neutral lipids. The polyunsaturated acids of the phospholipid fraction were affected most. Over 10% of these aeids were lost in six days at ice temperature, but only a small proportion of the losses was accounted for by increases in free fatty acids. Oxidative proo esses may account for the imbalance because the rate of oxidation, as measured by the thio-barbituric acid test, increased with storage temperature in the same manner as the rale at which unsaturated fatty acids were lost from the pliospliolipuls. Losses of polyunsaturated acids from the neutral lipids were much smaller, suggesting a selectively protective mechanism or environment in that fraction. The changes in the phospholipid fatty acids may provide the basis for useful objective tests of fish lecomposilion.

The stability of fish lipids during storage of fish tissue at ice temperature was investigated. Homogenized tissue from rockfish (striped bass, Roccus species) was stored 16 days at melting ice temperature. Lipids were extracted at intervals and separated into various components by silicic acid column chromatography. Changes in the weights of individual lipid components were correlated with gas chromatographic data on changes in individual acids of these components. In the fresh tissue, the phospholipid fraction contained the highest proportion of polyunsaturated acids and the neutral lipid fraction contained the highest proportion of monounsaturated acids. During storage of the tissue, there were decreases in the weights of total phospholipids and neutral lipids and an almost equivalent increase in the amount of free fatty acids. Although there were changes in all acids during storage, the polyunsaturated acids, eicosapentaenoic (C20:5) and docosahexaenoic (C22:6), were affected most and were lost at a faster rate from phospholipids than from neutral lipids. The loss of polyunsaturated acids was apparently by a selective process because most of the loss was from the cephalin fraction, even though it contained only about ¼ of the total polyunsaturated acids. Relatively small amounts of these acids were lost from the neutral lipids and virtually none from the lecithin.

A rapid method for the determination of deoxynivalenol (DON) in wheat was used to analyze 57 wheat samples collected from 4 midwestern states where the winter wheat crop was contaminated with Fusaria. The method involves sample extraction with acetonitrilewater (84 + 16), cleanup by charcoal-alumina column chromatography, and determination by thin layer chromatography (TLC), using an AlClj solution spray and heat to form a fluorescent derivative. Recoveries of DON added to wheat at levels as low as 0.2 μg/g averaged >80%. DON was detected at an average level of 3.6 μg/g; the levels ranged from 0.2 to 9.0 μg/g in 54 of 57 of the wheat samples. The quantity of DON was, in general, proportional to the percentage of total damaged kernels (grade). The chemical identity of DON was confirmed by mass spectrometry after isolation with preparative TLC.

In a 1979 survey of manufactured dairy products (992 samples of nonfat dry milk, vanilla ice cream, yogurt, Cheddar cheese, and cottage cheese) for aflatoxin M 1 contamination, one sample, a cottage cheese, had detectable aflatoxin equivalent to .08ng/ml in the milk from which the product was made. Samples were taken by Food and Drug District inspectors from randomly selected establishments at three times throughout the year. The distribution of sample quotas to each District was weighted to double the representation of establishments in the southern tier of states. The conclusion from this survey is that in a "normal" year aflatoxin M 1 should not be in a manufactured dairy product in the United States at a level in excess of that from milk with .1ng aflatoxin M 1 /ml.

The production of phytoalexins by various plants belonging to the family Leguminosae is reviewed. Many of the plants involved and/ or products derived from them are currently being consumed by humans. Most of the compounds that have been characterized were found to be toxic to certain microorganisms and hence they may be potential hazards for humans. The induction, chemical and physical characteristics, and other available information on these compounds are presented along with pertinent references. The lack of complete information on many of the phytoalexins reported suggests the need for further and continuing research in this area.

Copy of an article from the Gospel Messenger, April 1, 1956 issue, written from the perspective of a participant, Garnett E. Phibbs, pastor of the Champaign church, Illinois, at the Summer School of Alcohol Studies from a religious point of view. Lists accusations against the school. Calls for appreciation of the Yale pioneers.

Alexander, Aaron D. (Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, D.C.), Herbert G. Stoenner, Garnett E. Wood, and Robert J. Byrne . A new pathogenic Leptospira , not readily cultivated. J. Bacteriol. 83: 754–760. 1962.—A pathogenic Leptospira was isolated from water of the Grand River, (S.D.) that differed significantly from other known leptospirae in that it could not be cultivated in conventional leptospiral media. Growth was promoted in Fletcher's medium modified to contain 20% rabbit serum. The isolate, after several serial passages, was lethal for hamsters. It could not be adapted to grow in the chick embryo. Guinea pigs and calves inoculated with the isolate developed febrile and antibody responses but showed no other overt signs of disease. The strain was identified on the basis of cross-agglutination and agglutinin-adsorption tests as a new subserotype of Leptospira naam and was therefore designated as L. naam , subserotype dakotii .

In this thesis I examine scientific practices which produce data on air pollution, and the ways in which these data are managed and co-ordinated by researchers to make claims about air pollution. In doing so, I attend to the everyday practices and experiences of scientific research, exploring the ways in which science is a social and cultural endeavour. Based on three years ethnographic fieldwork with a multi-disciplinary project studying the relationship between Weather, Health and Air Pollution (WHAP), I trace the local meaning of research, but also its implications, as part of a wider ensemble of environmental health and policy relations.\ud Managing different data and co-ordinating research practices was understood by scientists as a fundamental part of doing ‘collaborative research’. Collaboration was performed through the movement of data, and also became an ethnographic device by which I traced and followed the activities of scientists. Working with data was considered ‘real’ scientific work, and it was this appeal to authenticity that led me to examine data as a form of material practice. The craftwork involved in the production and use of data illustrates the embodied and tacit nature of research. The way in which these different types of knowledge were negotiated by researchers shows that ‘objectivity’ is situated, and that scientific legitimacy is contingent on the social and technical configuration of tools, technologies, people and standards.\ud Drawing upon research from social and cultural studies of science, I emphasise both the representational and performative shape of science. The reciprocal nature of data practices configure and enact accepted ways of seeing air pollution which make scientific claims appear as ‘natural’ and logical. These not only represent air pollution but mobilise policy norms and modes of intervening, and therefore particular ideas, values and power dynamics. The chapters in this thesis explore the collection, production, processing and re-use of multiple air pollution data, and how the relations - of technologies, people and ideas - imbricated in data mobilise air pollution as an environmental health concern.

Etiquette manuals were a distinctive form of guidance literature, first published in the mid-1830s, providing instruction, in a compact format, on manners and how to behave in society. In the following decades up until the turn of the century, new pocket guides that advised readers how to eat, dress, greet, and most importantly, succeed in a social setting, appeared by the hundreds. This thesis’s main concern is to delve more deeply into this neglected body of material and challenge a series of standard conceptions of the genre, exploring its forms, authors (where known) and its discourse, as enabling as it was restricting about social interaction and social aspiration. The texts themselves play a significant role as sources: preface, form and syntax provide valuable information about readers and writers to be deduced. References to etiquette writings in fiction, newspapers, periodicals, advertisements of the time are equally valuable in gauging the reception and perception of etiquette works. Through these materials, I explore how expectations of conduct operated in relation to constructions of gender, age, and class, and the ambitions for (and anxieties about) social change and social mobility, that preoccupied the authors, readers and publishers of etiquette manuals. In this way, the project will not only shed light on the etiquette genre itself, but also expose its wider implications. Etiquette literature has the potential to tell us a good deal about how social mobility was understood by a significant portion of Victorian society, and also illuminates in more detail both the contemporary management of social fluidity and how individuals tried to navigate a social system in flux.

This thesis opens up original perspectives on middle-class women’s lives in post-war Britain by bringing together and interrelating their experiences of different types of work. By developing an analysis informed by the history of emotions, the scholarship of feminist economics and the ethics of care, it illuminates the ways in which work – paid or unpaid, caring, domestic or voluntary – impacts self-fulfilment and contributes to the sense of self. It addresses together different aspects of educated women’s lives, which have tended to be addressed separately in historical scholarship. It is based on the data set contained in the papers of the social scientist Dr Viola Klein. Using over nine hundred completed questionnaires from a 1963 social survey and accompanying notes and letters, contextualised by published social surveys, statistics, correspondence and oral history, it examines how graduate women conceptualised the ways in which they combined domestic responsibilities with an intellectual life. The nuancing of middle-class women’s approach to work is made possible through the finely textured detail of responses to Klein’s survey. Many women were motivated to work by a desire for intellectual fulfilment and a role beyond that of wife and mother. This thesis demonstrates that many middle-class mothers could gain a sense of agency by arranging their lives so that they were able to achieve intellectual fulfilment alongside family life. Although there were undoubtedly compromises and frustrations, the process of reflection and negotiation could be creative. Teaching was a popular form of work for women graduates in post-war Britain, and there were increasing opportunities for those who had studied medicine or dentistry at university to practice within the new National Health Service. The widening of these professional fields raised fundamental questions about the interrelationships between paid and unpaid caring, domestic and voluntary work, motherhood and marriage.

The thesis identifies and interrogates the development of a historical sensibility in the work of artists in post-war New York. It argues that scholars’ marginalisation of this question is behind wider failures to account for the development of modern painting, from the limited debates about painting’s ‘return’ in the 1980s (foundered on the question of identity) up to the present day. I ask why, in the decades following World War II, so many painters appeared to forsake aims of progress and innovation, calling instead for some form of return to the highpoints of pre-war modernism. Writing in the 1960s, F.N. Souza railed against abstract expressionism and pop art for ‘giving up after Picasso’. A decade earlier Grace Hartigan made the same point: ‘Why must I go on from Picasso?’. Such postures have always looked regressive: critics at the time dismissed them for misrecognising the advances of abstract painting, for abandoning optical integrity, for reintroducing illusion, content, memory, or space. Even in the 1970s and later, once the high modernist consensus had been overturned, they still looked reactionary. Modernist painting was transformed over these decades. It achieved definitive theoretical and historical formulation as a continuous tradition stretching back over 100 years. The term ‘modernism’ entered general use; the great permanent American collections acquired their definitive forms and were opened to the public. But this newly imagined tradition quickly came under attack for the exclusionary and prescriptive operations it implied. The artists I analyse have seemed to fall between the horns of this divide: neither moving modernism forward, nor departing from it. Even at the time, they were accused of following fashion rather than innovating. Neither side of the debate has had much use for them (it is difficult to decide who out of Clement Greenberg and Rosalind Krauss expressed stronger dislike for Hartigan and Joan Mitchell). They have seemed too proximate, too static, too rooted in the achievements of the immediate past. I think this has things the wrong way round. What shows up in the critical record and subsequent scholarship as regression, belatedness, or anachronism often in practice worked in opposite directions. Artists used demands for conformity to an imagined tradition to interrogate and intervene in modernism’s histories while these were still under construction. They did not need to share a common aesthetic or political programme. No manifestoes here. They did not even have to look similar. Many were unaware of one another’s existence. What matters is that each of them came in different ways to conceive of the history of modernist painting as something huge, definite, and unavoidable, but at the same time to see in that rigidity a source of renewed creativity and critical engagement. Each looked towards history as a source of engagement with the present. As in the various re-stagings of Picasso’s 'Demoiselles d’Avignon' (1907; itself, of course, a crossing-point for multiple traditions) carried out by Hartigan in the 1950s, Souza in the 1960s, and Robert Colescott in the 1980s, they actively diverted and reshaped these histories, turning such reflection into the material for continued painterly practice. The conditions for this kind of reorientation were historically unprecedented, grounded in the situation of the post-war United States: the advancing globalisation of the capitalist economy; the institutionalisation of modernist painting as official high culture; the political and intellectual climate of the Cold War; movements for decolonisation and advancing US neocolonialism; the demands for Civil Rights. Each of my chapters analyses a cluster of such framing factors, the legacies of which are still with us today.

A re-evaluation of the early fiction of Harriet Martineau (1802-76) is timely. In failing to interrogate the reciprocity between Martineau’s interpretation of personal experience and her fiction, scholars have not fully appreciated its purpose. Thus, modern criticism has accepted Martineau’s dismissive judgement of her earliest tales. Five Years of Youth (1831) has been labelled a pastiche of Jane Austen, and the Illustrations of Political Economy (1832-4), which established Martineau’s fame, have also been subject to bruising attack – as poor art, and ideologically mendacious. Most scholars see the novel Deerbrook (1839) as a conventional romance. Although Linda Peterson and Lana Dalley rightly identify in Martineau’s fiction the trope of domesticity and its political dimension, the argument of this thesis is more specific. Message and discourse, whether couched as political economy, children’s adventure or romance, were shaped by Martineau’s ‘heartland concepts’. The product of her subjectivity, these core values were a sense of duty (initially allied to a previously-unacknowledged soteriology of ‘safety’); a welcome offered to adversity as a stimulus to progress; an attack on superstition as an enemy to intellectual and moral progress; and household relationships which were inclusive of children and servants and stimulated community engagement. Martineau’s definition of community, predicated on a sense of belonging, initially reflected the networking of her Norwich household. It was subsequently redefined as wherever her own household could meet a local need. This interpretation is supported by an analysis of Martineau’s engagement with her adopted community of Ambleside, where, in putting into practice her fictional teachings, she demonstrated reciprocity in action.

This thesis offers a new conceptual framework for the study of women’s philanthropy between the end of the First World War and the beginning of the Second World War. Contesting the dominant historiographical narrative which essentialises the association of women with philanthropy, it argues that interwar female philanthropy operated through an inherently creative and flexible methodology. By interrogating gender as a category of analysis alongside other definitional variables of generation, religion, informal and formal modes of influence, and professionalisation, it reveals female philanthropy as an intellectual, as much as a practical endeavour, through which women philanthropists sought to achieve and encourage self-development and societal improvement. Moving beyond a social history framework that concentrates on philanthropic activity in terms of its relationship to social policy, six thematic chapters argue for the critical significance of concepts of language, performance and space in the meanings and presentations of interwar female philanthropy. A central remit of the thesis is to relate the social and cultural processes that underpinned women’s philanthropy between the wars to the subjective experiences of the individual women who engaged them.The thesis examines the personal archives, published oeuvres and publicity materials (alongside presentations of philanthropy in public discourse) of four philanthropic women who achieved celebrity in the interwar period: Evangeline Booth, Lettice Fisher, Emily Kinnaird and Muriel Paget. It interrogates the contemporary meanings attached to female philanthropy in a period of transformations in mass transport, mass communication and mass democracy, and in women’s position within society. An analysis of this process sheds new light on the historiography of work, civil society and citizenship. Problematising the centrality placed on the national as a sphere of citizenship (embodied in the state), the thesis reveals the critical interconnections between the local and global domains in female philanthropists’ visions. It also illuminates the hitherto underexplored connections between philanthropy, celebrity, the mass media and mass culture. Far from outmoded, female philanthropy lay at the heart of interwar cultural transformations. Female philanthropists contributed dynamically to debates about civil agency and sought to remap the contours of a good society.