Search

In Table 2 the arrow before the letters TUL is pointing downwards. The arrow should be pointing upwards.

The childhood years represent a period of increased nutrient requirements during which a balanced diet is important to ensure optimal growth and development. The aim of this study was to examine food and nutrient intakes and compliance with recommendations in school-aged children in Ireland and to examine changes over time. Analyses were based on two National Children's Food Surveys; NCFS (2003-04) (n 594) and NCFS II (2017-18) (n 600) which estimated food and nutrient intakes in nationally representative samples of children (5-12y) using weighed food records (NCFS: 7-d; NCFS II: 4-d). This study found that nutrient intakes among school-aged children in Ireland are generally in compliance with recommendations; however this population group have higher intakes of saturated fat, free sugars and salt, and lower intakes of dietary fibre than recommended. Furthermore, significant proportions have inadequate intakes of vitamin D, calcium, iron and folate. Some of the key dietary changes that have occurred since the NCFS (2003-04) include decreased intakes of sugar-sweetened beverages, fruit juice, milk and potatoes, and increased intakes of wholemeal/brown bread, high fibre ready-to-eat breakfast cereals, porridge, pasta and whole fruit. Future strategies to address the nutrient gaps identified among this population group could include the continued promotion of healthy food choices (including education around 'healthy' lifestyles and food marketing restrictions); improvements of the food supply through reformulation (fat, sugar, salt, dietary fibre); food fortification for micronutrients of concern (voluntary or mandatory) and/or nutritional supplement recommendations (for nutrients unlikely to be sufficient from food intake alone).

Additional file 1: Table S1 General study characteristics by NANS and TUDA cohorts. Table S2 Blood pressure and use of antihypertensive drugs in adults 18–70 years by MTHFR genotype.

The Vitamin D Standardization Program (VDSP) has developed protocols for standardizing procedures of 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] measurement in National Health/Nutrition Surveys to promote 25(OH)D measurements that are accurate and comparable over time, location, and laboratory procedure to improve public health practice.We applied VDSP protocols to existing ELISA-derived serum 25(OH)D data from the Irish National Adult Nutrition Survey (NANS) as a case-study survey and evaluated their effectiveness by comparison of the protocol-projected estimates with those from a reanalysis of survey serums by using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-tandem MS).The VDSP reference system and protocols were applied to ELISA-based serum 25(OH)D data from the representative NANS sample (n = 1118). A reanalysis of 99 stored serums by using standardized LC-tandem MS and resulting regression equations yielded predicted standardized serum 25(OH)D values, which were then compared with LC-tandem MS reanalyzed values for all serums.Year-round prevalence rates for serum 25(OH)D concentrations30,40, and50 nmol/L were 6.5%, 21.9%, and 40.0%, respectively, via original ELISA measurements and 11.4%, 25.3%, and 43.7%, respectively, when VDSP protocols were applied. Differences in estimates at30- and40-nmol/L thresholds, but not at the50-nmol/L threshold, were significant (P0.05). A reanalysis of all serums by using LC-tandem MS confirmed prevalence estimates as 11.2%, 27.2%, and 45.0%, respectively. Prevalences of serum 25(OH)D concentrations125 nmol/L were 1.2%, 0.3%, and 0.6% by means of ELISA, VDSP protocols, and LC-tandem MS, respectively.VDSP protocols hold a major potential for national nutrition and health surveys in terms of the standardization of serum 25(OH)D data.

EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA)

Plant-based (PB) diets are generally associated with good health and environmental sustainability but there is a wide range of PB diet definitions in the literature. PB foods, including ‘fruit & vegetables’ and ‘cereals, grains & potatoes’ provide important nutrients in the diets of adults and are promoted within food-based dietary guidelines (FBDG). The aims of this thesis were to first develop a systematic methodology to identify the PB component of an omnivorous diet using two extremes of PB diet definitions, i.e., plant-based (all) (PB-A): ‘all plant-based foods’ regardless of dietary quality and plant-based (healthful) (PB-H): ‘healthful plant-based foods’ only and then to use this systematic methodology to examine the nutritional quality of the PB component of the diet using the two definitions (PB-A and PB-H) compared to the baseline diet in adults in Ireland. Additionally, this thesis aimed to estimate the current intake of ‘fruit & vegetables’ and ‘cereals, grains & potatoes’ in adults in Ireland, to assess compliance with recommendations and to determine their contribution to overall energy and nutrient intakes. The analyses for this thesis were based on data from the National Adult Nutrition Survey (NANS), a nationally representative cross-sectional study that collected food and beverage consumption data from 1500 adults aged 18-90 years in the Republic of Ireland, between 2008 and 2010. Dietary data were collected using semi-weighed food diaries and nutrient intakes were estimated using UK and Irish food composition data. Mean daily intakes (MDI) of food groups and nutrients were estimated using SPSS©. The nutritional quality of the PB diet components and baseline diet was assessed by estimating energy-adjusted intakes of nutrients. Differences in the MDI of food groups and nutrients between PB diet components were assessed using independent sample t-tests. The percent contribution of food groups to energy and nutrient intakes were calculated by the mean proportion method. A novel 23-step protocol was developed which outlined the exclusion and inclusion criteria for the PB-A and PB-H components of the diet. This methodology was then used to examine the nutritional quality of the PB diet components using the two definitions (PB-A and PB-H) compared to the baseline diet (the overall diet consumed by the NANS population). Compared to the baseline diet, both PB diet components were of better nutritional quality in terms of many nutrients, including total and saturated fat, carbohydrate, dietary fibre, vitamin C, thiamin, folate, sodium, potassium, iron, but of poorer nutritional quality in terms of protein, MUFA, PUFA, total sugars, vitamin D, vitamin B12, calcium and iodine (PB-A only). Compared to the PB-A component, the PB-H component of the diet was of better nutritional quality with regards to total and saturated fat, PUFA, protein, carbohydrate, dietary fibre, free sugars, B-vitamins, vitamin C, potassium and iron but was of poorer quality for vitamin D and vitamin B12. The MDI of ‘fruit & vegetables’ (285g/d; approximately 3.6 servings) was below the World Health Organisation recommendation of ≥400g/d and the Irish FBDG of 5-7 servings/d (≤ 150ml/d from unsweetened fruit juice). Despite low intakes, ‘fruit & vegetables’ made important contributions to intakes of PUFA, carbohydrate, dietary fibre, vitamin C, vitamin A, potassium, folate, vitamin E, magnesium and thiamin, while also contributing to intakes of total sugars and free sugars. The MDI of ‘cereals, grains & potatoes’ was approximately 4.5 servings, however, only 2.1 servings were from ‘wholemeal cereals and breads, potatoes, pasta and rice’, which was below the Irish FBDG recommendation of 3-5 servings/d. ‘Cereals, grains & potatoes’ made significant contributions to intakes of energy, carbohydrate, dietary fibre, protein, folate, thiamin, niacin, vitamin B6, iron, magnesium, calcium, potassium and zinc but also contributed to intakes of sodium and made smaller contributions to the intake of saturated fat and free sugars. The data presented in this study may benefit the scientific community, health professionals, policymakers and the food industry in understanding how intakes of high-quality PB foods can be increased in adults in Ireland in light of the shift towards a more PB diet for health and environmental benefits.

Background: Women’s pre-conceptional health (including nutritional status) is important for both the health of the individual themselves and also for the lifelong health of any occurring offspring. However, it has been estimated that up to 50% of pregnancies are unplanned, thus optimal nutritional status is important for all women of child-bearing age (WCBA) not just those with pregnancy intentions. Despite the accumulation of evidence of the importance of nutritional status at this life-stage, nutrient recommendations for WCBA for the most part don’t differ from recommendations for other population groups. The notable exception to this is that all WCBA are recommended to take a folic acid supplement to reduce the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs) in an occurring pregnancy. Objectives: The overall aim of this thesis was to estimate the nutrient intakes among WCBA in Ireland. The first aim was to estimate the mean daily intake of energy, macronutrients, dietary fibre and salt, to determine compliance with dietary guidelines and to identify the key dietary sources of these nutrients in WCBA. A further aim was to estimate the mean daily intake of micronutrients, the prevalence of inadequate intakes and risk of excessive intakes and to identify the key dietary sources of micronutrient intakes in this population group. Methods: The analysis for this research was based on data from the subset of WCBA (18-50 years) (n 487) in the Irish National Adult Nutrition Survey (NANS) (2008-2010). Food and beverage intakes were estimated using a 4-day semi-weighed food record. Nutrient intakes were estimated using WISP® which uses data from ‘McCance and Widdowson’s the Composition of Foods’, Sixth Edition (plus all nine supplemental volumes). During the NANS, modifications were made to the food composition database to include recipes of composite dishes, fortified foods, nutritional supplements, generic Irish foods that were commonly consumed and new foods on the market. The mean daily intake (MDI) of energy and nutrients were estimated by summing the total amount of energy and each nutrient consumed and dividing the total by the number of recording days (four) using SPSS® Version 26. Compliance with dietary guidelines was examined for macronutrients, dietary fibre and salt. The prevalence of inadequate micronutrient intakes (% upper levels (UL)) was also determined. The percent contribution of specific food groups to mean daily intakes of energy, macro- and micro-nutrients was calculated by the mean proportion method. Results: This study found that that while protein intakes are sufficient among WCBA in Ireland, a large proportion of this population have total fat intakes above recommendations (42%) and carbohydrate intakes below recommendations (59%). This population group also have high intakes of saturated fat (13% of total energy (%TE)), free sugar (9%TE) and salt (5.5g/d from food sources only) and low intakes of dietary fibre (17g/d). Important sources of energy in the diet were ‘cereal & cereal products’ (including potatoes) ‘meat, fish & eggs’ and ‘dairy & dairy products’ which when combined contributed over two-thirds of energy intake on average. However ‘top-shelf’ foods (i.e. ‘sugars, confectionery, preserves & savoury snacks’, ‘biscuits, cakes & pastries’ and ‘sugar-sweetened beverages’) also contributed a high proportion of energy intake (21%) in addition to contributing significantly to intakes of fat (15%), saturated fat (16%) and free sugars (59%). This population group also have high intakes of saturated fat (13% of total energy (%TE)), free sugar (9%TE) and salt (5.5g/d from food sources only) and low intakes of dietary fibre (17g/d). With regard to micronutrients, significant proportions of WCBA have inadequate intakes of vitamin D (93%), vitamin C (48%), calcium (41%), folate (32%), iodine (26%), riboflavin (25%), vitamin A (18%), magnesium (18%) and iron (10%). There was little risk of excessive intakes of micronutrients among WCBA with negligible proportions (

During childhood, adequate micronutrients intakes are important for growth, acquisition of bone and cognitive development. The aim of this thesis was to examine micronutrient intakes and the role of nutritional supplements in the diets of school-aged children in Ireland. The analyses for this thesis were based on data from the National Children’s Food Survey II (NCFS II), a nationally representative cross-sectional study that collected food and beverage consumption data from 600 children aged 5-12 years in the Republic of Ireland between 2017 and 2018. Dietary intake data were collected (at brand level) using a 4-day weighed food diary and nutrient intakes were estimated using UK and Irish food composition data. Usual micronutrient intakes were estimated using the validated National Cancer Institute (NCI)-Method using SAS Enterprise Guide© version 6.1 and statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS©. The prevalence of inadequate intakes was estimated using estimated average requirements as cut-off points (excluding under-reporters (19.5%)) and the risk of excessive intake of micronutrients was evaluated using tolerable upper intake levels (ULs). The key sources of vitamin D and dietary folate equivalents (DFE) were calculated using the mean proportion method. Dietary determinants of vitamin D and DFE intake were investigated using tertile analysis to determine the food-groups and patterns of consumption which contributed to higher intakes. The NCFS II Dietary Supplement Database (2017-18) was manually constructed in Excel using product labels of the dietary supplements. Nutritional supplement ‘users’ were defined as children who consumed a micronutrient containing supplement at any time over the 4-day recording period. The key findings of this study were that a significant proportion of children had inadequate intakes of vitamin D (94%), calcium (37%), zinc (29%), iron (20%), vitamin C (19%), magnesium (18%) and folate (13%). The key sources of vitamin D were ‘ready-to-eat breakfast cereals’ (RTEBCs) (22%), ‘meat & meat products’ (20%), ‘vitamin D fortified milks & yogurts’ (12%) and nutritional supplements (10%). Nutritional supplements, ‘RTEBCs’ and ‘fortified milks’ were identified as the key dietary determinants of vitamin D intakes. For DFE, the key sources were ‘RTEBCs’ (28%), ‘bread & rolls’ (12%) and ‘milks’ (10%). ‘RTEBCs’, ‘folic acid fortified milks’ and nutritional supplements were identified as the key dietary determinants of DFE intakes. The NCFS II Dietary Supplement Database (2017-18) includes detailed information on the types, potencies, combinations and forms of the 102 dietary supplements used by this population over the 4 recording days. Multivitamin and/or minerals supplements were the most frequent type of supplement recorded followed by single vitamin D and C supplements. Of note, 15% of the nutritional supplements included in the database were recommended for adults and 13% did not specify the population group they were intended for. However, for most nutrients, the P75 of micronutrient content was at or below the NRV. Overall, if supplements are consumed as per label instructions, this is no cause for concern. Twenty-two percent of children in the NCFS II used a nutritional supplement. Nutritional supplements were shown to increase intakes of all vitamins examined in addition to iron and zinc and were not shown to increase the risk of excessive micronutrient intakes in this population group. Findings from this thesis will be useful for research related to nutrition, public health and food safety, and to support the work of agencies responsible for food and nutrition policy in Ireland and the EU. These data will also inform the industry with regard to current practices of nutritional supplement use in the diets of children in Ireland.

The consumption of plant-based foods has been associated with a variety of health benefits and a more sustainable environment. Plant-based foods including wholegrains cereals, vegetables and fruit provide important nutrients in the diet and are particularly promoted in food based dietary guidelines (FBDG) for their high dietary fibre (DF) content. The aim of this thesis was to examine the role of ‘cereals, grains & potatoes’ and ‘fruit & vegetables’, and DF in the diets of school-aged children (5-12y) in Ireland. A further aim was to investigate any changes in the intakes of these food groups and DF in school-aged children between 2003-04 and 2017-18. The analyses for this thesis were based on data from the National Children’s Food Survey II (NCFS II) which was a nationally representative cross-sectional study that collected food and beverage consumption data from 600 children aged 5-12 years in the Republic of Ireland between 2017 and 2018. Findings from the NCFS II were compared to the previous NCFS (2003-04). For each survey, dietary data were collected (at brand level) using weighed food diaries and nutrient intakes were estimated using UK and Irish food composition data. Mean daily intakes (MDI) of ‘cereals, grains & potatoes’ and ‘fruit & vegetables’ were estimated using SPSS© and their contribution to energy and nutrient intakes were estimated using the mean proportion method. Usual DF intakes were estimated using the validated National Cancer Institute (NCI)-Method. Dietary determinants of DF intake were investigated using tertile analysis to determine the food-groups and patterns of consumption which contributed to higher intakes of DF. The MDI of ‘cereals, grains & potatoes’ was 271g/d (approx. 3.7 servings/day) of which 1.7 servings was wholemeal/brown or from unprocessed potatoes. This is below the recommendation of 3-5 servings of wholemeal cereals & breads, potatoes, pasta and rice daily. The MDI of ‘fruit & vegetables’ was 221g/d (approx. 2.8 servings/day) which is below the World Health Organisation recommendation of ≥ 400g of fruit & vegetables per day and the Irish FBDG of 5-7 servings of fruit & vegetables per day (≤ 150ml/day from unsweetened fruit juice or smoothies). Despite these low intakes, ‘cereals, grains & potatoes’ made an important contribution to intake of energy, carbohydrate, DF, B vitamins, vitamin D, iron and calcium but also contributed to intakes of saturated fat, free sugar and sodium. ‘Fruit & vegetables’ made important contributions to intakes of DF, vitamin A, vitamin C, B-vitamins, potassium and magnesium but also contributed to intakes of total and free sugars. While overall intakes of ‘cereals, grains & potatoes’ and ‘fruit & vegetables’ were similar to the previous NCFS (2003-04), intakes of wholemeal breads, high fibre ready-to-eat breakfast cereals (RTEBC), porridge, pasta, whole fruit and smoothies were higher and intakes of low fibre RTEBC, potatoes and fruit juice were lower. The intake of DF in school-aged children in Ireland was 14.4 g/d which is below the adequate intake for normal bowel function in children but higher than that reported in the previous NCFS (2003-04) (12.4g/d). Determinants of a higher DF intake were wholemeal/brown breads, high fibre RTEBC, fruit and vegetables. The consumption patterns associated with a higher DF intake were a higher proportion of children consuming these foods (except for vegetables), consuming these foods more frequently and having a higher intake per eating occasion (except for fruit). Findings from this thesis may provide evidence for public health campaigns to promote the consumption of plant-based foods to increase compliance with the food based dietary guidelines and to improve DF intakes in this population group.

Vitamin K is required to maintain normal blood coagulation and may also function in other areas including bone health and the inhibition of vascular calcification. The aim of this thesis was to estimate the intake, adequacy and dietary sources of vitamin K1 and vitamin K2 in the Irish population (1-90y) and to examine any changes in vitamin K1 or vitamin K2 intakes and sources in school-aged children (5-12y) between 2003-04 and 2017-18. This research was based on data from five nationally representative dietary surveys carried out by the Irish Universities Nutrition Alliance (www.iuna.net). These surveys included the National Children’s Food Survey (NCFS) (5-12y) (2003-04), the National Teens’ Food Survey (13-17y) (2005-06), the National Adult Nutrition Survey (18-90y) (2008-10), the National Pre-school Nutrition Survey (1-4y) (2010-11) and the NCFS II (5-12y) (2017-18). For each survey, dietary data were collected (at brand level) using weighed/semi-weighed food diaries. Each food, beverage and dietary supplement recorded was assigned a unique food code according to its food descriptor and nutritional profile. Using these food codes, the Irish Food Composition Database (IFCD) (2012) was updated to include food composition data for vitamin K1 and vitamin K2 (menaquinone-4 (MK-4) and menaquinones-5-10 (MK-5-10)). Vitamin K1 is typically found in green vegetables and certain plant oils. MK-4 is formed in mammals from the tissue specific conversion from vitamin K1 or from menadione (a synthetic form of vitamin K added to animal feed). The longer chained menaquinones, MK-5-10, are synthesized by bacteria capable of food fermentation and are found in fermented foods and foods of animal origin. As there are no analytical data available for vitamin K content of foods in Ireland, composition data for vitamin K1, MK-4 and MK-5-10 were assigned to each food code using published analytical values from the UK Composition of Foods Integrated Dataset, the United States Department of Agriculture National Nutrient Database or published papers, recipe calculation based on individual ingredients, and from nutritional information on product labels. In addition, foods that were either not fermented or of animal origin were assigned a composition value of 0µg for each menaquinone group. For a small number of food codes, vitamin K1 values were assigned based on the fat content of a similar product.. Overall, foods highest in vitamin K1 were herbs and ‘vegetable & vegetable dishes’. Foods highest in MK-4 and MK-5-10 were ‘meat & meat products’, ‘eggs & egg dishes’ and ‘cheese’. The distribution of vitamin K1 and vitamin K2 (MK-4 and MK-5-10) intakes in the Irish population were carried out using SPSS© for Windows™ Version 22.0. The mean intakes of vitamin K1 were above the European Food Safety Authority Adequate Intake (AI) of 1µg/kg/d (required to maintain normal blood coagulation) for children aged 1-12y. However, vitamin K1 intakes were below the same AI for teenagers aged 13-17y. ‘Vegetable & vegetable dishes’ (primarily green vegetables) was the key source of vitamin K1 for both children and teenagers. Mean intakes of MK-4 and MK-5-10 ranged from 8-13µg/d and 32-45µg/d in the Irish population aged 1-90y, respectively. The key dietary sources of MK-4 and MK-5-10 were ‘meat & meat products’, ‘milks’ and ‘cheese’. There was no difference in the intake and dietary sources of vitamin K1 or vitamin K2 in Irish children (5-12y) between 2003-04 and 2017-18. The data presented in this study will add to the small pool of data available on vitamin K intakes and sources in nationally representative samples of population groups. The Irish food composition database for vitamin K will support future researchers in the assessment of vitamin K intakes at individual or population level.

Population ageing is rapidly progressing and it is estimated that by 2050, one in every five people globally will be aged 60 years or over. Adequate nutritional status can play a key role in preventing or delaying the progression of age related diseases. The aim of this thesis was to estimate usual macro- and micro-nutrient intakes, to determine the key sources, compliance with recommendations and to investigate the nutritional status of older Irish adults (≥65 years). This thesis also aimed to examine the impact of fortified foods and nutritional supplements on micronutrient intakes, prevalence of inadequate intakes and nutritional status of older adults. The analysis for this research was based on data from the subset of older adults aged ≥65 years (n 226) in the Irish National Adult Nutrition Survey (NANS) (2008-2010). Food and beverage intakes were estimated using a 4-day semi-weighed food record. Sixty-four per cent of older adults provided a blood sample (of which 79% were fasting) and 67% of older adults provided a morning first void urine sample for the analysis of nutritional biomarkers. Nutrient intakes were estimated using WISP® which estimates nutrient intake using data from ‘McCance and Widdowson’s The Composition of Foods’, Sixth Edition (plus all nine supplemental volumes). Usual intakes of macro- and micro- nutrients were calculated using the NCI-method implemented in SAS® macros. The prevalence of inadequate micronutrient intakes (% upper levels (UL)) was also calculated. The distribution of nutrient status was examined using SPSS® and the prevalence of deficiency was examined using published cut-off ranges. In summary, this study has highlighted unfavourable intakes of total and saturated fat, sugar, salt and dietary fibre together with low intakes and/or suboptimal status of key micronutrients such as vitamin D, riboflavin, vitamin B12, folate, calcium and magnesium in older Irish adults. Furthermore, the consumption of fortified foods and use of nutritional supplements make significant contributions to intakes and status of these micronutrients. Future strategies to address the nutritional issues identified in older adults could include the promotion of healthy food choices together with improvements of the food supply including reformulation (fat, sugar and salt), food fortification or supplementation to support successful ageing of our population. The data presented in this study will serve to inform policy makers in the development and implementation of updated dietary recommendations for older adults in Ireland. Furthermore, information about the relative contributions of specific foods to micronutrient intakes will be useful to both policy makers and the food industry to develop targeted dietary strategies to improve the diets of older Irish adults.

Irish monitoring data on PCDD/Fs, DL-PCBs and Marker PCBs were collated and combined with Irish Adult Food Consumption Data, to estimate dietary background exposure of Irish adults to dioxins and PCBs. Furthermore, all available information on the 2008 Irish pork dioxin food contamination incident was collated and analysed with a view to evaluate any potential impact the incident may have had on general dioxin and PCB background exposure levels estimated for the adult population in Ireland. The average upperbound daily intake of Irish adults to dioxins Total WHO TEQ (2005) (PCDD/Fs & DLPCBs) from environmental background contamination, was estimated at 0.3 pg/kg bw/d and at the 95th percentile at 1 pg/kg bw/d. The average upperbound daily intake of Irish adults to the sum of 6 Marker PCBs from environmental background contamination ubiquitous in the environment was estimated at 1.6 ng/kg bw/d and at the 95th percentile at 6.8 ng/kg bw/d. Dietary background exposure estimates for both dioxins and PCBs indicate that the Irish adult population has exposures below the European average, a finding which is also supported by the levels detected in breast milk of Irish mothers. Exposure levels are below health based guidance values and/or Body Burdens associated with the TWI (for dioxins) or associated with a NOAEL (for PCBs). Given the current toxicological knowledge, based on biomarker data and estimated dietary exposure, general background exposure of the Irish adult population to dioxins and PCBs is of no human health concern. In 2008, a porcine fat sample taken as part of the national residues monitoring programme led to the detection of a major feed contamination incidence in the Republic of Ireland. The source of the contamination was traced back to the use of contaminated oil in a direct-drying feed operation system. Congener profiles in animal fat and feed samples showed a high level of consistency and pinpointed the likely source of fuel contamination to be a highly chlorinated commercial PCB mixture. To estimate additional exposure to dioxins and PCBs due to the contamination of pig and cattle herds, collection and a systematic review of all data associated with the contamination incident was conducted. A model was devised that took into account the proportion of contaminated product reaching the final consumer during the 90 day contamination incident window. For a 90 day period, the total additional exposure to Total TEQ (PCDD/F &DL-PCB) WHO (2005) amounted to 407 pg/kg bw/90d at the 95th percentile and 1911 pg/kg bw/90d at the 99th percentile. Exposure estimates derived for both dioxins and PCBs showed that the Body Burden of the general population remained largely unaffected by the contamination incident and approximately 10 % of the adult population in Ireland was exposed to elevated levels of dioxins and PCBs. Whilst people in this 10 % cohort experienced quite a significant additional load to the existing body burden, the estimated exposure values do not indicate approximation of body burdens associated with adverse health effects, based on current knowledge. The exposure period was also limited in time to approximately 3 months, following the FSAI recall of contaminated meat immediately on detection of the contamination. A follow up breast milk study on Irish first time mothers conducted in 2009/2010 did not show any increase in concentrations compared to the study conducted in 2002. The latter supports the conclusion that the majority of the Irish adult population was not affected by the contamination incident.