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Des Jeux olympiques féminins ont eu lieu à Paris le 20 août 1922, organisés par la Française Alice Milliat (1884-1957), contre l’avis du Comité international olympique et dans un contexte relativement hostile à la pratique sportive pour les femmes, malgré les libertés obtenues dans ce domaine depuis la Guerre. Réunissant 77 jeunes femmes des États-Unis, de France, de Grande-Bretagne, de Suisse et de Tchécoslovaquie autour de treize épreuves d’athlétisme, cet évènement pourrait sembler anecdotique en comparaison d’autres manifestations plus fournies. Cependant, son importance se mesure à l’aune d’autres critères : sa capacité à avoir fait émerger une internationale féminine, à avoir encouragé l’institutionnalisation du sport pour les femmes dans les différents pays, à s’être émancipé des gymnastiques hygiéniques et esthétiques dans lesquelles on cantonnait les jeunes filles, mais aussi la violence des réactions qu’il a générées dans les milieux masculins, en particulier, de la presse et du sport à l’échelle nationale et internationale. En attendant le vote imminent du sénat pour le suffrage féminin, les dirigeantes et sportives françaises d’août 1922 clament haut et fort leur droit de courir. Cette première édition sera renouvelée trois fois avec un succès croissant, avant de sombrer par l’action du CIO, de la Fédération internationale d’athlétisme et de la crise économique des années 1930. Women's Olympic Games took place in Paris on August 20, 1922, organized by the Frenchwoman Alice Milliat (1884-1957), against the will of the International Olympic Committee and in a context relatively hostile to the practice of sports for women, despite the freedoms obtained in this field since WWI. Bringing together 77 girls from Czechoslovakia, France, Great Britain, Switzerland and the United States around thirteen athletics events, this event could seem anecdotal compared to other events. However, its importance is measured by other criteria: its capacity to reveal a female international, to have encouraged the institutionalization of the sport for the women in the various countries, to have emancipated itself from the hygienic and aesthetic gymnastics in which one confined the girls, but also the violence of the reactions which it generated in the male circles, in particular, of the press and the sport on a national and international scale. While waiting for the imminent vote of the Senate for the female suffrage, the French leaders and sportswomen of August 1922 proclaimed loud and clear their right to run. This first edition will be renewed three times with a growing success, before sinking by the action of the IOC, the International Federation of Athletics and the economic crisis of the 1930s.

The evolution of resistance to pesticides is a major burden in agriculture. Resistance management involves maximizing selection pressure heterogeneity, particularly by combining active ingredients with different modes of action. We tested the hypothesis that alternation may delay the build-up of resistance not only by spreading selection pressure over longer periods, but also by decreasing the rate of evolution of resistance to alternated fungicides, by applying an experimental evolution approach to the economically important crop pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici. Our results show that alternation is either neutral or slows the overall resistance evolution rate, relative to continuous fungicide use, but results in higher levels of generalism in evolved lines. We demonstrate that the nature of the fungicides, and therefore their relative intrinsic risk of resistance may underly this trade-off, more so than the number of fungicides and the rhythm of alternation. This trade-off is also dynamic over the course of resistance evolution. These findings open up new possibilities for tailoring resistance management effectively while optimizing interplay between alternation components.

Sustainable crop protection is crucial for food security, but is threatened by the adaptation of diverse, evolving pathogen population. Resistance can be managed by maximizing selection pressure diversity, by dose variation and the spatial and temporal combination of active ingredients. We explored the interplay between operational drivers for maximizing management strategy sustainability relative to the resistance status of fungal populations. We applied an experimental evolution approach to three artificial populations of an economically important wheat pathogen,Zymoseptoria tritici, differing in initial resistance status. We revealed that diversified selection pressure limited the selection of resistance in naïve populations and those with low frequencies of single resistances. Increasing the number of modes of action delayed resistance development most effectively — ahead of increasing the number of fungicides, fungicide choice based on resistance risk and temporal variation in fungicide exposure — but favored generalism in the evolved populations. However, the prior presence of multiple resistance and its subsequent selection in populations overrode the effects of diversity in management strategies, incidentally invalidating any universal ranking. Initial resistance composition must therefore be considered specifically in sustainable resistance management, to address real-world field situation.

International audience; In modern cropping systems, the near-universal use of plant protection products selects for resistance in pest populations. The emergence and evolution of this adaptive trait threaten treatment efficacy. We identified determinants of fungicide resistance evolution and quantified their effects at a large spatiotemporal scale. We focused on Zymoseptoria tritici, which causes leaf blotch in wheat. Phenotypes of qualitative or quantitative resistance to various fungicides were monitored annually, from 2004 to 2017, at about 70 sites throughout 22 regions of France (territorial units of 25000km2 on average). We modelled changes in resistance frequency with regional anti-Septoria fungicide use, yield losses due to the disease and the regional area under organic wheat. The major driver of resistance dynamics was fungicide use at the regional scale. We estimated its effect on the increase in resistance and relative apparent fitness of each resistance phenotype. The predictions of the model replicated the spatiotemporal patterns of resistance observed in field populations (R2 from 0.56 to 0.82). The evolution of fungicide resistance is mainly determined at the regional scale. This study therefore showed that collective management at the regional scale could effectively complete local actions.This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

International audience; Pesticide resistance poses a critical threat to agriculture, human health and biodiversity. Mixtures of fungicides are recommended and widely used in resistance management strategies. However, the components of the efficiency of such mixtures remain unclear. We performed an experimental evolutionary study on the fungal pathogen Z. tritici to determine how mixtures managed resistance. We compared the effect of the continuous use of single active ingredients to that of mixtures, at the minimal dose providing full control of the disease, which we refer to as the “efficient” dose. We found that the performance of efficient-dose mixtures against an initially susceptible population depended strongly on the components of the mixture. Such mixtures were either as durable as the best mixture component used alone, or worse than all components used alone. Moreover, efficient dose mixture regimes probably select for generalist resistance profiles as a result of the combination of selection pressures exerted by the various components and their lower doses. Our results indicate that mixtures should not be considered a universal strategy. Experimental evaluations of specificities for the pathogens targeted, their interactions with fungicides and the interactions between fungicides are crucial for the design of sustainable resistance management strategies.

Pesticide resistance poses a critical threat to agriculture, human health and biodiversity. Mixtures of fungicides are recommended and widely used in resistance management strategies. However, the components of the efficiency of such mixtures remain unclear. We performed an experimental evolution study on the fungal pathogen Z. tritici, to determine how mixtures managed resistance. We compared the effect of the continuous use of single active ingredients to that of mixtures, at the minimal dose providing full control of the disease, which we refer to as the “efficient” dose. We found that the performance of efficient-dose mixtures against an initially susceptible population depended strongly on the components of the mixture. Such mixtures were either as durable as the best mixture component used alone, or worse than all components used alone. Moreover, efficient-dose mixture regimes probably select for generalist resistance profiles as a result of the combination of selection pressures exerted by the various components and their lower doses. Our results indicate that mixtures should not be considered a universal strategy. Experimental evaluations of specificities for the pathogens targeted, their interactions with fungicides and the interactions between fungicides are crucial for the design of sustainable resistance management strategies.

The evolution of resistance to pesticides is a major burden in agriculture. Resistance management involves maximizing selection pressure heterogeneity, particularly by combining active ingredients with different modes of action. We tested the hypothesis that the temporal alternation of active ingredients may delay the build-up of resistance not only by spreading selection pressure over longer periods, but also by decreasing the rate of evolution of resistance to alternated fungicides. Here, we applied an original experimental evolution approach to the economically important crop pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici. We observed the dynamics of Z. tritici resistance in 56 independent lines subjected to 14 continuous or alternation regimes of 3 fungicides contrasting for their mode of action, at their EC95 selection doses. For the first time in a plant pathogen, our results show that alternation is either neutral or slows the evolution of resistance, relative to continuous fungicide use, but results in higher levels of generalism in evolved lines. We demonstrate that the mode of action of resistance of fungicides drivingly underlies this trade-off, more so than the number of fungicides and the frequency of alternation. This trade-off is also dynamic over the course of resistance evolution, as shown by the change in population phenotype structure and the relative impact of selection drivers. These findings open up new possibilities for tailoring resistance management effectively while optimizing smart interplay between alternation components. They also confirm experimental evolution as an untapped but promising approach to dissect adaptation in phytopathogenic fungi.

The host plant is often the main variable explaining population structure in fungal plant pathogens, because specialization contributes to reduce gene flow between populations associated with different hosts. Previous population genetic analysis revealed that French populations of the grey mould pathogen Botrytis cinerea were structured by hosts tomato and grapevine, suggesting host specialization in this highly polyphagous pathogen. However, these findings raised questions about the magnitude of this specialization and the possibility of specialization to other hosts. Here we report specialization of B. cinerea populations to tomato and grapevine hosts but not to other tested plants. Population genetic analysis revealed two pathogen clusters associated with tomato and grapevine, while the other clusters co-occurred on hydrangea, strawberry and bramble. Measurements of quantitative pathogenicity were consistent with host specialization of populations found on tomato, and to a lesser extent, populations found on grapevine. Pathogen populations from hydrangea and strawberry appeared to be generalist, while populations from bramble may be weakly specialized. Our results suggest that the polyphagous B. cinerea is more accurately described as a collection of generalist and specialist individuals in populations. This work opens new perspectives for grey mold management, while suggesting spatial optimization of crop organization within agricultural landscapes.

BACKGROUND Management of pesticide resistance is a major issue in modern agricultural systems, particularly in the context of the broader challenge of reducing pesticide use. However, such management must be adapted to resistance dynamics, which remains challenging to predict due to its dependence on many biological traits of pests, interactions with the environment and pesticide use. We retrospectively studied the evolution of reported resistances to four modes of action (benzimidazoles, quinone outside inhibitors, sterol demethylation inhibitors and succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors), in French populations of the wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici. RESULTS We used statistical models to analyse the Performance trial network data set (2004-2017; ∼ 70 locations in France yearly). They highlighted contrasting behaviours between phenotypes, for example: (i) stable spatial distributions and colonization front structures over time, and (ii) different frequency growth rates at the national scale and between regions. CONCLUSION We provide a quantitative description of the spatiotemporal patterns of resistance evolution for fungicides with several modes of action. Moreover, we highlight some unexpected resistance dynamics in France, with major differences between the north and south. This complex pattern of resistance evolution in French populations is consistent with previous descriptions of dynamics at the European scale. These results should make it easier to anticipate evolution locally and to improve the management of resistance. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

SummaryResearch rationale: In modern cropping systems, the near-universal use of plant protection products selects for resistance in pest populations. The emergence and evolution of this adaptive trait threaten treatment efficacy. We identified determinants of fungicide resistance evolution and quantified their effects at a large spatiotemporal scale.Methods: We focused onZymoseptoria tritici, which causes leaf blotch in wheat. Phenotypes of qualitative or quantitative resistance to various fungicides were monitored annually, from 2004 to 2017, at about 70 sites throughout 22 regions of France (territorial units of 25 000km2on average). We modelled changes in resistance frequency with regional anti-Septoriafungicide use, yield losses due to the disease and the regional area under organic wheat.Key results: The major driver of resistance dynamics was fungicide use at the regional scale. We estimated its effect on the increase in resistance and relative apparent fitness of each resistance phenotype. The predictions of the model replicated the spatiotemporal patterns of resistance observed in field populations (R2from 0.56 to 0.82).Main conclusion: The evolution of fungicide resistance is mainly determined at the regional scale. This study therefore showed that collective management at the regional scale could effectively complete local actions.

ContextThe spatial distributions of species and populations are both influenced by local variables and by characteristics of surrounding landscapes. Understanding how landscape features spatially structure the frequency of a trait in a population, the abundance of a species or the species’ richness remains difficult specially because the spatial scale effects of the landscape variables are often unknown.ObjectivesHere, we present “siland”, an R package for analyzing the effect of landscape features on georeferenced point observations (described in a Geographic Information System shapefile format).Methods & Results“siland” simultaneously estimates the spatial scales and intensities of landscape variable effects. It does not require any information about the scale of effect. Two methods are available: one is based on focal sample site (Bsiland method, b for buffer) and one is distance weighted using Spatial Influence Function (Fsiland method, f for function). ‘siland’ allows for effects tests, effects maps and models comparison.ConclusionsAdaptable and user-friendly, the “siland” package is a very practical tool to perform landscape analysis.

International audience; The wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici is a relevant fungal model organism for investigations of the epidemiological determinants of sexual reproduction. The objective of this experimental study was to determine which intrinsic factors, including parental fitness and timing conditions of infection, affect the numbers of ascospores produced. We first performed 28 crosses on adult wheat plants in semi controlled conditions, with 10 isolates characterized for their fitness traits. We validated the efficiency of the crossing method, opening up new perspectives for epidemiological studies. We found that the ability to reproduce sexually was determined, at least partly, by the parental genotypes. We also found that the number of ascospores released was correlated with the mean size of the sporulating lesions of the parental isolates on the one hand, and the absolute difference in the latent periods of these isolates on the other. No functional trade-off between the two modes of reproduction in Z. tritici was revealed: there was no adaptive compromise between pathogenicity (asexual multiplication on leaves) and transmission (intensity of sexual reproduction on wheat debris). Moreover, a few days' difference in the latent periods of the two parental isolates, such that one progressed more rapidly in the host tissue than the other, seemed to be slightly beneficial to ascosporogenesis. This may be because the first parental isolate breaks down host defenses, thereby facilitating infection for the other parental isolate. However, a larger difference (a few weeks), generated by leaving two to three weeks between the inoculations of the plant with the parental isolates, was clearly detrimental to ascosporogenesis. In this case, the host tissues were likely colonized by the first isolate, leaving less host resources available for the second, consistent with a competition effect during the asexual stage. (C) 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Despite being born into a modest family in provincial France, and without qualification, Alice Milliat rose to become a leading figure in the nascent international movement for women’s sport of the 1920’s and 1930’s. After supporting a national sport movement for women, she founded an international federation (1921) and its World games (1922–1934) and fought for the complete participation of women into the track and field Olympic program. Eventually, in the face of strong oppositions of conservative male sport leaders, she had to give up her fight for women emancipation in 1936. In this chapter, Carpentier shows how Milliat tried to apply her feminist convictions into the sport movement of her time and the way she tackled the obstacles before disappearing from the public arena.

This preprint has been reviewed and recommended by Peer Community In Evolutionary Biology (http://dx.doi.org/10.24072/pci.evolbiol.100039). The efficiency of plant resistance to fungal pathogen populations is expected to decrease over time, due to its evolution with an increase in the frequency of virulent or highly aggressive strains. This dynamics may differ depending on the scale investigated (annual or pluriannual), particularly for annual crop pathogens with both sexual and asexual reproduction cycles. We assessed this time-scale effect, by comparing aggressiveness changes in a localZymoseptoria triticipopulation over an eight-month cropping season and a six-year period of wheat monoculture. We collected two pairs of subpopulations to represent the annual and pluriannual scales: from leaf lesions at the beginning and end of a single annual epidemic, and from crop debris at the beginning and end of a six-year period. We assessed two aggressiveness traits – latent period and lesion size – on sympatric and allopatric host varieties. A trend toward decreased latent period concomitant with a significant loss of variability was established during the course of the annual epidemic, but not over the six-year period. Furthermore, a significant cultivar effect (sympatric vs. allopatric) on the average aggressiveness of the isolates revealed host adaptation, arguing that the observed patterns could result from selection. We thus provide an experimental body of evidence of an epidemiological trade-off between the intra- and inter-annual scales in the evolution of aggressiveness in a local plant pathogen population. More aggressive isolates were collected from upper leaves, on which disease severity is usually lower than on the lower part of the plants left in the field as crop debris after harvest. We suggest that these isolates play little role in sexual reproduction, due to an Allee effect (difficulty finding mates at low pathogen densities), particularly as the upper parts of the plant are removed from the field, explaining the lack of transmission of increases in aggressiveness between epidemics.

The Belgian count Henri de Baillet-Latour presided the IOC for almost 20 years and had to face new challenges such as replacing Coubertin’s autocratic style of management, protecting the IOC’s institutional monopoly in the face of the increasing strength of the international sports federations, and expanding the Olympics across the globe. In this chapter, Carpentier shows how, in fact, his leadership turned out to be no less autocratic than that of his predecessor. With the finesse of a true diplomat, thanks to his personal fortune, and despite the geopolitical constraints resulting from colonialism and the limitations of contemporary means of transportation and communication, Baillet-Latour managed to block the expansion of the YMCA and to turn the Olympics into a global event.

BGPI : équipe 5; In addition to being one of the most acute problems impeding chemical control of fungal diseases, the evolution of fungicide resistance is an emblematic case of local adaptation to spatially heterogeneous and temporally variable selection pressures. Here we dissected the adaptation of Botrytis cinerea (the causal agent of grey mould) populations on grapes to several fungicides. We carried out a two-year survey (four collection dates) on three treated/untreated pairs of plots from vineyards in Champagne (France), and monitored the frequency of four resistant phenotypes that are unambiguously associated to four distinct genotypes. For two loci under selection by currently-used fungicides (MDR1 and MDR2), the frequencies of resistant mutations at vintage were greater in treated plots compared to untreated plots, showing that the effect of selection is detectable even at the plot scale. This effect was not detectable for two other loci under selection by previously-used fungicides (BenR1 and ImiR1). We also found that treatment with currently-used fungicides reduced B. cinerea effective population size, leading to a significant decrease in genic diversity and allelic richness in treated versus untreated plots. We further highlight that even under ample drift and migration, fungal populations can present an efficient response to selection. Finally, for the four studied loci, the costs of fungicide resistance were estimated by modelling the decrease in the frequency of resistant mutations in the absence of treatment. We discuss the importance of these estimates for defining strategies for limiting or counteracting the local adaptation of pests to fungicides. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Depuis les annees 1990 et les premieres recherches sur l’histoire du sport et des femmes, un postulat d’impermeabilite entre les mouvements sportif et feministe fut pose, sans reelle remise en question jusqu’a aujourd’hui. Le personnage central d’Alice Milliat, leader du sport feminin francais et international des annees 1910 aux annees 1930, sert, ici, d’exemple pour repenser les relations entre ces deux univers, qui se sont pourtant bien croises pendant cette periode. Proche de la suffragiste moderee Jane Misme, Alice Milliat a milite pour l’egalite des sexes par le sport grâce a une presence mediatique forte, l’application de principes feministes dans l’organisation de ses federations et la defense de tous les sports pour toutes.

Summary 1. Characterizing fine scale mating patterns in plant populations makes it possible to investigate genetic drift, gene flow and selection gradients at a contemporary time scale. Molecular markers are valuable tools for this type of analysis, and numerous statistical methods have been developed to make the best of the information they can provide. In particular, we recently proposed a Bayesian approach based on a paternity analysis wherein we estimate jointly the variance in male fecundity and the pollen dispersal kernel. 2. Here, we use simulated data sets to investigate the accuracy of the Bayesian approach compared to (i) classical maximum likelihood approaches (e.g. Neighbourhood model) that ignore variance in male fecundity or explain it through a few covariates and (ii) indirect methods (KinDist and TwoGener) that integrate the variance in fecundity in an ‘effective population density’. 3. The Bayesian estimates correctly considered the over-dispersion resulting from the variance in fecundity, resulting in wider but more accurate confidence intervals, in particular in high-density populations. The maximum likelihood methods resulted in confidence intervals with low coverage probabilities and in widespread false-positive tests when testing the effect of covariates on male fecundity. 4. Estimated individual fecundities and estimated empirical variance in fecundity were robust to the distribution assumed for the individual random fecundities (log-normal or Gamma). In contrast, the theoretical variance estimate critically depended on the assumed distribution. 5. The indirect methods provided much more variable estimators, as expected because they use less information about pollen sources and consider the molecular information only through genetic structure indices. 6. Disentangling the fecundity from the spatial effects in paternity analyses is necessary when studying selection in natura and or when addressing the effects of spatial distribution on effective gene flow. The Bayesian approach studied here successfully accounts for the variance in fecundity when a large fraction of it is not explained by the studied covariates. The Mixed Effect Mating Model computer program introduced here is devoted to its implementation.

The Olympic Movement, created by the French Baron Pierre de Coubertin, was conceived as a tool to promote and spread European aristocratic and masculine values. That is why women were not included in the first Olympic programme in 1896. Nevertheless, the growing influence of feminist movements before and after the First World War sparked the development of international women's sports contests. Since 1921, the Federation Sportive Feminine Internationale, directed by Alice Milliat, organized regular ‘Women's Games’ and was affiliated with the same number of countries as similar male international federations. This expanded role of women and women's sport challenged the established social order of masculine domination. Despite the fact that women's participation in the Games can be seen as early as 1900, the Olympic Games at which the participation of female athletes became more notable to some historians was not until those held in 1928 in Amsterdam. But the overture made to women did not emerge from the w...

Les annees 1920 et 1930 se caracterisent par la remise en question d’une des valeurs du sport : l’amateurisme. Alors que le sport se democratise lentement, le mouvement olympique, quant a lui, affiche un conservatisme de ses valeurs aristocratiques, representatives des membres qui le dirigent. La federation internationale de football, en revanche, cree une section professionnelle en 1931, sous la pression de ses licencies et de quelques dirigeants. Le conflit entre le C.I.O. et la F.I.F.A. devient alors le miroir de cette opposition entre « discours » et « realite ». L’etude de la correspondance entre les deux institutions et en particulier entre ses deux presidents, Henri de Baillet-Latour et Jules Rimet, montre que les desaccords au sujet de l’amateurisme revetent des enjeux de pouvoir entre ces deux puissances sportives. Alors que la F.I.F.A. menace de ne pas participer aux Jeux olympiques de 1928 si ses professionnels n’y sont pas admis, Baillet-Latour decide seul de jouer les iconoclastes afin d’assurer la reussite economique de ces Jeux, renoncant momentanement a defendre l’amateurisme olympique. Quand la reussite des competitions olympiques est assuree, le president du C.I.O. revient alors sur son compromis, provoquant le mecontentement des membres de la F.I.F.A. qui decident alors de creer la Coupe du Monde de football pour concurrencer le tournoi olympique.

International audience; “Body and Sporting Cultures of Women in Power, from Golda Meir to Angela Merkel”The aim of this paper is to study the making and the use of the body and sporting cultures of four women, each Head of their respective state. Golda Meir (1898-1978), Indira Gandhi (1917-1984), Margaret Thatcher (1925-2013) and Angela Merkel (born in 1954) are three generations of women in three different moments of the history of sport: its emergence at the end of the 19th century, its development in the Interwar period and its massification since the 1960s. The analysis of several biographies and press reviews shows that their social background and education built both their vision of sport, which were in fact their father’s one, and their body culture, influenced by their mother. Women in power did not escape from gender stereotypes, which apply in sport and political areas. Whereas they did no or few sport, they improvised as supporters when political reasons required it.; L’objet de cet article est d’étudier la fabrique et l’usage des cultures sportives et corporelles de quatre femmes qui ont été à la tête de leur État. Golda Meir (1898-1978), Indira Gandhi (1917-1984), Margaret Thatcher (1925-2013) et Angela Merkel (née en 1954) forment trois générations qui correspondent aussi à trois temps de l’histoire du sport : son émergence à la fin du XIXe siècle, son développement dans l’entre-deux-guerres et sa massification à partir des années 1960. L’étude des différentes biographies et revues de presse montre que le milieu social et l’éducation construisent un rapport au sport venant du père et une culture corporelle influencée par la mère. Les femmes au pouvoir n’échappent pas aux stéréotypes de genre qui prévalent dans le sport et dans la politique. Pas ou peu pratiquantes, elles s’improvisent supportrices quand la raison politique l’exige.

International audience

Background Arthritogenic alphaviruses, including Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), are responsible for acute fever and arthralgia, but can also lead to chronic symptoms. In 2006, a Chikungunya outbreak occurred in La Réunion Island, during which we constituted a prospective cohort of viremic patients (n = 180) and defined the clinical and biological features of acute infection. Individuals were followed as part of a longitudinal study to investigate in details the long-term outcome of Chikungunya. Methodology/Principal Findings Patients were submitted to clinical investigations 4, 6, 14 and 36 months after presentation with acute CHIKV infection. At 36 months, 22 patients with arthralgia and 20 patients without arthralgia were randomly selected from the cohort and consented for blood sampling. During the 3 years following acute infection, 60% of patients had experienced symptoms of arthralgia, with most reporting episodic relapse and recovery periods. Long-term arthralgias were typically polyarthralgia (70%), that were usually symmetrical (90%) and highly incapacitating (77%). They were often associated with local swelling (63%), asthenia (77%) or depression (56%). The age over 35 years and the presence of arthralgia 4 months after the disease onset are risk factors of long-term arthralgia. Patients with long-term arthralgia did not display biological markers typically found in autoimmune or rheumatoid diseases. These data helped define the features of CHIKV-associated chronic arthralgia and permitted an estimation of the economic burden associated with arthralgia. Conclusions/Significance This study demonstrates that chronic arthralgia is a frequent complication of acute Chikungunya disease and suggests that it results from a local rather than systemic inflammation., Author Summary Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is transmitted to human by mosquitoes. It is a re-emerging virus that has a risk to spread globally, given the expanding dissemination of its mosquito vectors. Chikungunya disease is characterized by acute transient febrile arthralgic illness, but can also lead to chronic incapacitating arthralgia. We have conducted a prospective longitudinal study to investigate in details long-term outcome of CHIKV infection. We found that 60% of patients experienced arthralgia 36 months after the onset of acute disease. Arthralgia affected most often multiple sites and were usually incapacitating. In addition to arthralgia, many patients suffered from myalgia and cutaneous lesions and several cognitive dysfunctions. We also showed that age over 35 years and the presence of arthralgia 4 months after the onset of disease are risk factors for long-term arthralgia. Patients with long-term arthralgia did not display biological markers typically found in autoimmune or rheumatoid diseases. This study demonstrates that chronic arthralgia is a frequent complication of acute Chikungunya disease and suggests that it results from a local rather than systemic inflammation.

The second author's name was misspelled. The correct name is Frederik Staikowsky. The correct citation is: Schilte C, Staikowsky F, Couderc T, Madec Y, Carpentier F, et al. (2013) Chikungunya Virus-associated Long-term Arthralgia: A 36-month Prospective Longitudinal Study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 7(3): e2137. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002137

International audience; Functional statistics are commonly used to characterize spatial patterns in general and spatial genetic structures in population genetics in particular. Such functional statistics also enable the estimation of parameters of spatially explicit (and genetic) models. Recently, Approximate Bayesian Computation (ABC) has been proposed to estimate model parameters from functional statistics. However, applying ABC with functional statistics may be cumbersome because of the high dimension of the set of statistics and the dependences among them. To tackle this difficulty, we propose an ABC procedure which relies on an optimized weighted distance between observed and simulated functional statistics. We applied this procedure to a simple step model, a spatial point process characterized by its pair correlation function and a pollen dispersal model characterized by genetic differentiation as a function of distance. These applications showed how the optimized weighted distance improved estimation accuracy. In the discussion, we consider the application of the proposed ABC procedure to functional statistics characterizing non-spatial processes.

The sustainability of dietary plant and animal protein consumption is an important issue, but few data are available to ascertain the health-related impact of animal and plant protein intake. The objective was to study the relationships between animal and plant protein intake and diet quality, as reflected by an integrated index of nutrient adequacy. Using data on 1912 adults from the French Individual and National Consumption Survey 2 (2006-2007), we assessed diet quality by using the PANDiet, a unique score combining 35 probabilities of having an adequate nutrient intake, and used multiple regression analysis to study the relationship with intakes of plant, animal, and related food source proteins. After adjustments for intakes of energy, alcohol, and protein from other sources and sociodemographic factors, plant protein intake was positively associated with the PANDiet, irrespective of sex (beta = 0.50, P < 0.0001). By contrast, total and animal protein intakes were differently associated with the PANDiet according to sex, with a positive association in women (beta = 0.07 and beta = 0.08, respectively; P < 0.01) and an inverse association in men (beta = -0.07 and beta = -0.05, respectively; P < 0.01). The relationships between the PANDiet and intakes of protein from animal food sources varied: for instance, associations were inverse for red meat and poultry in men but not in women, whereas irrespective of sex, they were positive for fish, milk, and yogurt and inverse for processed meat, cheese, and eggs. These findings show that plant protein is a robust marker of a healthy diet, whereas total animal protein includes different subtypes of animal protein that largely vary in their relationship with diet quality. These data could help refine protein recommendations from a qualitative and dietary standpoint.

International audience

Le tennis est un sport tres pratique par les aristocrates vers la fin du XIXe siecle et il fait, grâce a cela, partie du programme olympique des les premiers Jeux en 1896. Pourtant, a cause d�un conflit complexe et important entre le Comite international olympique et la Federation internationale de tennis, ce sport est exclu de la competition olympique en 1927 et ne reapparaitra que tardivement, aux Jeux de Seoul, en 1988. Cet article presente les raisons de ce conflit, ainsi que ses principaux acteurs, Henri de Baillet-Latour, president du CIO, et Albert Canet, president de la Federation internationale, dans le contexte particulier des annees 1920. Si la question de l�amateurisme semble etre au c�ur de cette affaire, on decouvre, a travers la correspondance, d�autres enjeux inavoues : commerciaux et economiques, mais aussi symboliques et sociaux. Pour ces raisons, le conflit entre les deux institutions est representatif des problematiques qui ont anime le milieu sportif mondial de l�entre-deux-guerres

International audience; Diversifier les paysages cultivés : état des connaissances et perspectives de recherche Chapitre 19tiré de l'ouvrage « L'immunité des plantes »Présentation de l'ouvrageLes plantes disposent d’une immunité naturelle qui leur permet de résister aux maladies et aux agressions parasitaires dans leur environnement. L’invention puis le développement de l’agriculture ont cependant créé des milieux très favorables à l’émergence de nouvelles maladies et au développement des épidémies. Cette vulnérabilité sanitaire s’est ensuite accentuée avec l’intensification agricole, à partir des années 1950, de sorte que le recours généralisé aux pesticides de synthèse est devenu un pilier essentiel de la production. Ce modèle est désormais remis en cause et le développement d’une protection agroécologique des cultures devient une nécessité.Comprendre comment fonctionne l’immunité des plantes et déchiffrer leur arsenal de défense face aux agressions parasitaires est essentiel pour produire des variétés résistantes et réduire la dépendance de l’agriculture à la protection chimique. Mais il faut compter avec la formidable capacité d’adaptation des populations pathogènes, qui conduit les chercheurs à imaginer des stratégies complexes pour maintenir efficace la résistance des variétés cultivées. Les gènes qui confèrent la résistance aux plantes commencent à être perçus comme un bien commun à préserver absolument.Cet ouvrage explicite les concepts fondamentaux et s’appuie sur des études de cas pour réaliser une synthèse très complète des travaux en biologie, en modélisation et en sciences sociales sur ce qu’est l’immunité végétale et sur la manière dont elle pourrait concourir à une agriculture respectueuse de l’environnement.

The evolution of resistance to pesticides is a major economic and environmental burden in agriculture. Resistance management involves maximizing selection pressure heterogeneity, particularly by combining active ingredients (AIs) with different modes of action. Yet, there is still no consensus on the best strategy to delay the emergence and selection of resistance in pathogen populations. Here, we aimed at contributing to this debate while addressing two questions: (i) How can we enhance the performance of anti-resistance strategies and what are the drivers of their optimization? (ii) How the initial status of resistance in populations modulates the performance of strategies? We used Zymoseptoria tritici, the causal agent of the major wheat disease, which is resistant in Europe to most fungicides to varying degrees, to exemplify this debate. We applied an innovative approach for fungi, experimental evolution, to mimic and accelerate, in laboratory-controlled conditions, fungicide resistance usually occurring in the field. In particular, we disentangled the relative impact in reducing resistance selection of multiple drivers of alternation, mixture and dose modulation strategies by submitting a susceptible strain to heterogeneous selection regimes as compared to the single use of the same AIs. In a first experiment, alternation was found a beneficial or neutral strategy to decrease the rate of evolution of resistance, relative to continuous fungicide use, but resulted in higher levels of generalism. We demonstrated that the relative intrinsic resistance risk of AI probably underpinned such trade-off, more than the number of fungicides used or alternation frequency. In a second experiment, we dissected how an efficient-dose mixture, i.e. a mixture with reduced doses of its components but still allowing a disease control similar to that provided by these components used alone, may delay resistance evolution of a naïve population. We concluded that the durability of such mixtures was detrimental to beneficial, strongly depending on its components. Such mixtures possibly favoured generalist or multiple resistance patterns, depending on the combined AIs. Dose reduction in sequence strategies didn’t prevent the selection of highly resistant specialist strains, nor of generalist resistance in some lines. A final experiment was designed to validate the previous findings, while submitting a susceptible isolate and two artificial populations containing low frequencies of single vs. multiple field resistances to selection regimes displaying patterns differing for four possible sources of heterogeneity. Preliminary results concluded that increasing the number of AIs and varying their modes of actions were efficient to delay resistance build-up, either in mixture or alternation regimes, although it facilitated the selection of some generalism in addition to the initially introduced specialist resistances. However, none of these sources of heterogeneity were found efficient at mitigating resistance evolution when multiple resistance was introduced in populations, suggesting that recombination, occurring during sexual reproduction in field populations, should be considered for fungicide sustainability management. At last, fitness cost associated to some resistance alleles shortly delayed resistance evolution and may reshaped population structure in some situations. Experimental evolution has proven to be a powerful tool to enrich the debate on anti-resistance strategies whilst dissecting the interplay between their drivers in realistic biological conditions. These findings open up new possibilities for tailoring resistance management and suggest that the prevention of resistance emergence would be more sustainable than the mitigation of selection.; La résistance aux pesticides impacte économiquement la production agricole et la biodiversité. Sa gestion implique de maximiser l'hétérogénéité des pressions de sélection, notamment en combinant des substances actives (SA) de modes d'action différents. Or, le débat concernant l’efficacité des différentes stratégies pour retarder l'émergence et la sélection de la résistance dans les populations pathogènes reste ouvert. Cette thèse aborde deux questions : (i) Comment améliorer la performance des stratégies anti-résistance et quels sont les facteurs permettant leur optimisation ? (ii) Comment le statut initial de la résistance dans les populations module-t-il la performance des stratégies ? Pour illustrer ce débat, nous avons utilisé Zymoseptoria tritici, agent causal de la principale maladie du blé, résistant à la plupart des fongicides en Europe. Nous avons appliqué une approche innovante pour les champignons, l'évolution expérimentale, qui permet d’imiter et d’accélérer, en conditions contrôlées de laboratoire, la résistance aux fongicides habituellement sélectionnée au champ. En particulier, en soumettant un isolat sensible à des régimes de sélection hétérogènes par comparaison avec l'utilisation en séquence des mêmes SA, nous avons dissocié l'impact relatif de plusieurs facteurs sur la réduction de la sélection au sein de stratégies d'alternance, de mélange et de modulation de dose. Dans une première expérimentation, l'alternance s'est avérée être une stratégie bénéfique ou neutre pour diminuer le taux d'évolution de la résistance par rapport à une utilisation continue, mais a favorisé du généralisme. Nous avons démontré que ce compromis résidait probablement dans le risque de résistance intrinsèque des SA, plutôt que dans le nombre de fongicides utilisés ou le rythme de l'alternance. Dans une deuxième expérimentation, nous avons exploré comment un mélange à dose efficace, c'est-à-dire un mélange avec des doses réduites de ses composants permettant un contrôle de la maladie similaire à celui fourni par ses composants utilisés seuls, peut retarder l'évolution de la résistance d'une population sensible. Nous avons conclu qu’un tel mélange pouvait être, selon ses composants, préjudiciable à bénéfique pour la durabilité. Des résistances généralistes ou multiples ont plus ou moins été favorisées en fonction des combinaisons de SA. La réduction de la dose dans des séquences n'a pas empêché la sélection de souches spécifiques fortement résistantes, ni la résistance généraliste dans certaines lignées. Une dernière expérimentation a été conçue pour valider les résultats précédents en soumettant un isolat sensible et deux populations artificielles, contenant de faibles fréquences de résistances simples ou multiples, à des régimes de sélection contrastés par quatre sources d'hétérogénéité. Les résultats ont conclu que l'augmentation du nombre de SA et la variation des modes d'action étaient efficaces pour retarder la sélection de la résistance, que ce soit en mélange ou alternance. Toutefois cela faciliterait un certain généralisme des isolats sélectionnés, en plus des résistances spécifiques initialement introduites. Aussi, aucune de ces sources d'hétérogénéité ne s'est avérée efficace pour atténuer l'évolution de la résistance lorsque la résistance multiple était présente dans les populations. Cela suggère que la recombinaison, pouvant survenir lors de la reproduction sexuée au champ, est un facteur majeur à considérer. Enfin, la réduction de la valeur sélective associée à certains allèles résistants retarde légèrement leur sélection et peut moduler la structure des populations. L'évolution expérimentale s'avère être un outil puissant pour enrichir le débat sur les stratégies de lutte en analysant les interactions entre ses déterminants. Ces résultats ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives pour optimiser la gestion des résistances et suggèrent que la prévention de l'émergence serait plus durable que de limiter la sélection.

International audience; A la Belle Époque, le sport devient une distraction incontournable pendant les villégiatures balnéaires sur le littoral normand. Les manifestations sportives ponctuent l'emploi du temps des touristes et les moments forts de la saison. Concours, compétitions, paris, démonstrations de nouvelles pratiques caractérisent cette nouvelle expression des loisirs des élites. Fréquemment, la clientèle retient sa période de villégiature et prend ses quartiers d'été au bord de la mer en fonction des événements sportifs programmés. Pour rien au monde on ne raterait les journées équestres du Grand Prix et les tournois de Polo à Deauville, les concours de tirs aux pigeons et le rallye paper de Cabourg ou les meetings aériens de Trouville. Synonyme de raffinement, de culture et de distinction, les pratiques et spectacles sportifs trouvent naturellement leur place dans les stations. Dès lors, à l'instar de ce que J.D. Urbain a mis en évidence s'agissant des mœurs et coutumes balnéaires, le sport pourrait être un révélateur pertinent des usages sociaux et mondains de la villégiature au bord de mer.

International audience