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Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text., Background: Canagliflozin is a sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor that significantly reduces the composite of cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, or nonfatal stroke in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and elevated cardiovascular risk. The comparative effects among participants with and without a history of cardiovascular disease (secondary versus primary prevention) were prespecified for evaluation. Methods: The CANVAS Program (Canagliflozin Cardiovascular Assessment Study) randomly assigned 10 142 participants with type 2 diabetes mellitus to canagliflozin or placebo. The primary prevention cohort comprised individuals ≥50 years of age with ≥2 risk factors for cardiovascular events but with no prior cardiovascular event, and the secondary prevention cohort comprised individuals ≥30 years of age with a prior cardiovascular event. The primary end point was a composite of cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, or nonfatal stroke. Secondary outcomes included heart failure hospitalization and a renal composite (40% reduction in estimated glomerular filtration rate, renal replacement therapy, or renal death). Results: Primary prevention participants (N=3486; 34%) were younger (63 versus 64 years of age), were more often female (45% versus 31%), and had a longer duration of diabetes mellitus (14 versus 13 years) compared with secondary prevention participants (N=6656; 66%). The primary end point event rate was higher in the secondary prevention group compared with the primary prevention group (36.9 versus 15.7/1000 patient-years, P

There are still many controversies about the role of leptin in reproductive function and sexual development. We recently demonstrated that leptin receptors are expressed in rodent Leydig cells and that leptin has inhibitory effects on hCG-stimulated testosterone production by adult rat Leydig cells in culture. In this study, we evaluated the expression of leptin receptor (Ob-R) in rat testes from gestational to adult age in comparison with the pattern of expression of relaxin-like factor (RLF), a specific marker of Leydig cell differentiation status. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that, in prenatal life, Ob-R immunoreactivity was absent at early embryonic ages (E14.5) and appeared at a late embryonic age (E19.5); in postnatal life, immunoreactivity was evident only after sexual maturation (35-, 60-, and 90-days old), whereas it was absent in testes from sexually immature rats (7-, 14-, and 21-days old). Immunoreaction was always confined to Leydig cells and no signal of Ob-R was detected within the tubules. The pattern of expression of Ob-R during testicular development was similar with that of RLF immunoreactivity, which was present in mature fetal as well as adult-type Leydig cells. In contrast with the findings in the testis, in the hypothalamus, the immunohistochemical pattern of Ob-R was very similar between pre- and postpubertal life. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction studies showed that Ob-R expression was present in embryonic, prepubertal, and adult rat testes; semiquantitative analysis showed that mRNA levels were much higher in late versus early embryonic testes, as well as in mature adults versus sexually immature testes, with a gradual increase from younger to older ages. Functional studies showed that, while leptin (150 ng/ml) significantly inhibited hCG-stimulated testosterone production in adult rat Leydig cells (46% reduction; P0.01), it did not modify prepubertal rat Leydig cells steroidogenic function in vitro. In conclusion, we showed that, in rat testis, Ob-R expression is characteristic of mature Leydig cells (fetal and adult type) and it is functional in adult but not prepubertal life.

Androgens are essential in the maintenance of nitric oxide-mediated erectile activity in the rat. The objective of the present study was to investigate the role of androgens in regulating trabecular smooth muscle relaxation in the corpus cavernosum in response to vasoactive challenge in men with erectile dysfunction (ED).Retrospective, double-blind correlation analyses.Fifty-two impotent patients without confounding risk factors for ED were obtained from a total of 250 undergoing diagnostic evaluation.All patients had dynamic colour duplex ultrasound (D-CDU) and hormonal evaluation for LH, total and free testosterone, SHBG and oestradiol.Based upon D-CDU results patients were diagnosed as having arteriogenic (AR, n = 18; mean age 51) or corporeal venocclusive (CVO, n = 13; mean age 49) ED; in other patients (n = 21, mean age 43) a diagnosis of psychogenic (P)-ED was made by comprehensive psychogenic testing and confirmed by normal D-CDU results. AR and CVO patients had altered compliance of cavernous arteries recorded by D-CDU [20-25% lower resistive index (RI) than patients with psychogenic ED], and lower free testosterone (FT) levels than psychogenic patients [42.3 +/-3.5 SE and 49.3+/-5.2 vs. 75.2+/-7.6 pmol/l, respectively; P0.01]. More important, in all patients there was a strong direct correlation between resistive index values and FT levels (r = 0.47, P = 0.002); the relationship was maintained also when adjusted for age, SHBG and oestradiol (r = 0.37, P = 0.02).These results indicate that in men with erectile dysfunction low free testosterone may correlate independently of age with the impaired relaxation of cavernous endothelial and corporeal smooth muscle cells to a vasoactive challenge. These findings give clinical support to the experimental knowledge of the importance of androgens in regulating smooth muscle function in the penis.

The paper - presented in a Conference organized in March 2020 at Dublin City University on "Data Protection Imperialism and Data Sovereignty" - points out that free-flow of data is a growing issue of contention in international relations and that there is an urgent need for agreements on the issue. It doubts however that traditional international trade law instruments (typically GATT and GATS, and related regional agreements) are the appropriate tools, while surely international trade fora have the experience to come up with ad hoc solutions based on national sovereignty, reciprocity and involvement of other international organizations such as ITU. The paper also posits that from a FFD perspective there is little difference – nor a significant difference can be made – between “personal data” and “non-personal data”.

OBJECTIVE To provide a comprehensive assessment of multiorgan insulin sensitivity in lean and obese subjects with normal glucose tolerance. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS The hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp procedure with stable isotopically labeled tracer infusions was performed in 40 obese (BMI 36.2 ± 0.6 kg/m2, mean ± SEM) and 26 lean (22.5 ± 0.3 kg/m2) subjects with normal glucose tolerance. Insulin was infused at different rates to achieve low, medium, and high physiological plasma concentrations. RESULTS In obese subjects, palmitate and glucose Ra in plasma decreased with increasing plasma insulin concentrations. The decrease in endogenous glucose Ra was greater during low-, medium-, and high-dose insulin infusions (69 ± 2, 74 ± 2, and 90 ± 2%) than the suppression of palmitate Ra (52 ± 4, 68 ± 1, and 79 ± 1%). Insulin-mediated increase in glucose disposal ranged from 24 ± 5% at low to 253 ± 19% at high physiological insulin concentrations. The suppression of palmitate Ra and glucose Ra were greater in lean than obese subjects during low-dose insulin infusion but were the same in both groups during high-dose insulin infusion, whereas stimulation of glucose Rd was greater in lean than obese subjects across the entire physiological range of plasma insulin. CONCLUSIONS Endogenous glucose production and adipose tissue lipolytic rate are both very sensitive to small increases in circulating insulin, whereas stimulation of muscle glucose uptake is minimal until high physiological plasma insulin concentrations are reached. Hyperinsulinemia within the normal physiological range can compensate for both liver and adipose tissue insulin resistance, but not skeletal muscle insulin resistance, in obese people who have normal glucose tolerance.

Insulin resistance in adipose tissue increases the release of free fatty acids into the circulation, which likely contributes to impaired insulin action in liver and skeletal muscle associated with obesity. However, reliable assessment of adipose tissue insulin resistance requires performing a hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp procedure in conjunction with a fatty acid tracer infusion to determine insulin-mediated suppression of lipolytic rate. We developed a simpler method for evaluating adipose tissue insulin resistance in vivo, determined as the product of palmitate rate of appearance into the bloodstream and plasma insulin concentration during basal conditions. We validated our Adipose Tissue Insulin Resistance Index (ATIRI) by comparison with an assessment of adipose tissue insulin resistance determined by using the hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp procedure in conjunction with a palmitate tracer infusion in 47 obese nondiabetic subjects (body mass index: 40.1 ± 9.3 kg/m(2)). We found the ATIRI correlated closely with adipose tissue insulin resistance assessed during the clamp procedure (r =-0.854, P < 0.001). These results demonstrate that the ATIRI provides a reliable index of adipose tissue insulin resistance in obese subjects.

OBJECTIVE Fatty acid (FA) metabolism is tightly regulated across several tissues and impacts insulin sensitivity. CD36 facilitates cellular FA uptake, and CD36 genetic variants associate with lipid abnormalities and susceptibility to metabolic syndrome. The objective of this study was to gain insight regarding the in vivo metabolic influence of muscle and adipose tissue CD36. For this, we determined the relationships between CD36 alternative transcripts, which can reflect tissue-specific CD36 regulation, and measures of FA metabolism and insulin resistance. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS The relative abundance of alternative CD36 transcripts in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle from 53 nondiabetic obese subjects was measured and related to insulin sensitivity and FA metabolism assessed by hyperinsulinemic–euglycemic clamps and isotopic tracers for glucose and FA. RESULTS Transcript 1C, one of two major transcripts in adipose tissue, that is restricted to adipocytes predicted systemic and tissue (adipose, liver, and muscle) insulin sensitivity, suggesting adipocyte CD36 protects against insulin resistance. Transcripts 1B and 1A, the major transcripts in skeletal muscle, correlated with FA disposal rate and triglyceride clearance, supporting importance of muscle CD36 in clearance of circulating FA. Additionally, the common CD36 single nucleotide polymorphism rs1761667 selectively influenced CD36 transcripts and exacerbated insulin resistance of glucose disposal by muscle. CONCLUSIONS Alternative CD36 transcripts differentially influence tissue CD36 and consequently FA homeostasis and insulin sensitivity. Adipocyte CD36 appears to be metabolically protective, and its selective upregulation might have therapeutic potential in insulin resistance.

Background & Aims An increased number of macrophages in adipose tissue is associated with insulin resistance and metabolic dysfunction in obese people. However, little is known about other immune cells in adipose tissue from obese people, and whether they contribute to insulin resistance. We investigated the characteristics of T cells in adipose tissue from metabolically abnormal insulin-resistant obese (MAO) subjects, metabolically normal insulin-sensitive obese (MNO) subjects, and lean subjects. Insulin sensitivity was determined by using the hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp procedure. Methods We assessed plasma cytokine concentrations and subcutaneous adipose tissue CD4 + T-cell populations in 9 lean, 12 MNO, and 13 MAO subjects. Skeletal muscle and liver samples were collected from 19 additional obese patients undergoing bariatric surgery to determine the presence of selected cytokine receptors. Results Adipose tissue from MAO subjects had 3- to 10-fold increases in numbers of CD4 + T cells that produce interleukin (IL)-22 and IL-17 (a T-helper [Th] 17 and Th22 phenotype) compared with MNO and lean subjects. MAO subjects also had increased plasma concentrations of IL-22 and IL-6. Receptors for IL-17 and IL-22 were expressed in human liver and skeletal muscle samples. IL-17 and IL-22 inhibited uptake of glucose in skeletal muscle isolated from rats and reduced insulin sensitivity in cultured human hepatocytes. Conclusions Adipose tissue from MAO individuals contains increased numbers of Th17 and Th22 cells, which produce cytokines that cause metabolic dysfunction in liver and muscle in vitro. Additional studies are needed to determine whether these alterations in adipose tissue T cells contribute to the pathogenesis of insulin resistance in obese people.

Data from studies in animal models indicate that certain lipid metabolites, particularly diacylglycerol, ceramide, and acylcarnitine, disrupt insulin action. We evaluated the relationship between the presence of these metabolites in the liver (assessed by mass spectrometry) and hepatic insulin sensitivity (assessed using a hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp with stable isotope tracer infusion) in 16 obese adults (body mass index, 48 ± 9 kg/m 2 ). There was a negative correlation between insulin-mediated suppression of hepatic glucose production and intrahepatic diacylglycerol (r = −0.609; P = .012), but not with intrahepatic ceramide or acylcarnitine. These data indicate that intrahepatic diacylglycerol is an important mediator of hepatic insulin resistance in obese people with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.

Increased adipose tissue lipolytic activity is considered an important factor in the pathogenesis of skeletal muscle insulin resistance associated with obesity.The objective of the study was to evaluate the relationship between the rate of release of free fatty acids (FFA) into plasma and skeletal muscle insulin sensitivity in human subjects.We determined the palmitate rate of appearance (Ra) per kilogram fat-free mass (an index of FFA availability to lean tissues) during basal conditions and during insulin infusion (to simulate postprandial insulin concentrations) and skeletal muscle insulin sensitivity, defined as the percent increase in the glucose rate of disappearance, in 110 nondiabetic women (body mass index 20.6-46.4 kg/m(2)) by using the hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp procedure in conjunction with stable isotope tracer methods.Basal (r(s) = -0.379, P0.001) and insulin-suppressed (r(s) = -0.631, P0.001) palmitate Ra correlated negatively with skeletal muscle insulin sensitivity. However, the strength of the correlation was greater for palmitate Ra during insulin infusion than palmitate Ra during basal conditions (P = 0.0007) when lipolytic rates and FFA availability were reduced to less than 20% of basal values. The relative suppression of palmitate Ra correlated directly with the relative stimulation of glucose rate of disappearance during insulin infusion (r(s) = 0.530, P0.001).These data suggest that the correlation between FFA kinetics and muscle glucose metabolism is due to multiorgan insulin resistance rather than a direct effect of FFA itself on skeletal muscle insulin action and challenge the view that increased adipose tissue lipolytic rate is an important cause of insulin resistance.

Purpose of review Intrahepatic fat content is increasingly being recognized as an integral part of metabolic dysfunction. This article reviews available methods for the assessment of hepatic steatosis. Recent findings Apart from liver biopsy, there are several noninvasive radiologic modalities for evaluating nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Ultrasonography, computed tomography, and traditional MRI remain largely qualitative methods for detecting mild to severe degrees of steatosis rather than quantitative methods for measuring liver fat content, even though novel attempts to collect objective quantitative information have recently been developed. Still, their sensitivity at mild degrees of steatosis is poor. Undoubtedly, most methodological advances have occurred in the field of MRI and magnetic resonance spectroscopy, which currently enable the accurate quantification of intrahepatic fat even at normal or near normal levels. Xenon computed tomography was also recently shown to offer another objective tool for the quantitative assessment of steatosis, although more validation studies are required. Summary Several modalities can be used for measuring intrahepatic fat and assessing steatosis; the choice will ultimately depend on the intended use and available resources.

Evaluation of Hypotalamo-pituitary-gonadal axisin a group of 36 patients of either prepuberal or puberal age with cryptorchidism