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Neonatal maturity depends on the maternal capacity to provide nutrients for foetal growth. This study aimed to investigate the effects of systemic administration of recombinant porcine somatotropin (pST), one of the main regulators of growth and metabolism, to pregnant gilts during late gestation on circulating nutrients and expression levels of genes in liver and skeletal muscle of their 110-day-old foetuses. Gilts received either daily injections of sterile water (control [CTL] group, n = 15) or of 5 mg of pST (pST group, n = 17) from days 90 to 109 of gestation. At day 110 postconceptus, pairs of foetuses (one of small and one of average size within a litter) were selected. Circulating fructose concentrations were greater, but circulating concentrations of urea were lower in pST than in CTL foetuses. Expression levels of genes involved in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism were more affected by pST treatment in liver than in muscle. Hepatic molecular changes suggest an inhibition of energy-consuming processes (glycogen and lipid biosynthesis) and the activation of energy-producing pathway (mitochondrial oxidation) in pST compared to CTL foetuses. Expression levels of some genes involved in intracellular degradation of proteins were greater in the liver of pST foetuses, and combined with lower uremia, this suggests a higher utilisation of protein sources in pST foetuses than in CTL foetuses. In muscle, molecular changes were mainly observed in the IGF-insulin axis. Altogether, pST-treated gilts seem to have a greater ability to support foetal liver development by the reorientation of energy and protein metabolism.

Dietary methionine affects protein metabolism, lean gain and growth performance and acts in the control of oxidative stress. When supplied in large excess relative to growth requirements in diets for pigs, positive effects on pork quality traits have been recently reported. This study aimed to decipher the molecular and biochemical mechanisms affected by a dietary methionine supply above growth requirements in the loin muscle of finishing pigs. During the last 14 days before slaughter, crossbred female pigs (n = 15 pigs/diet) were fed a diet supplemented with hydroxy-methionine (Met5; 1.1% of methionine) or not (CONT, 0.22% of methionine). Blood was sampled at slaughter to assess key metabolites. At the same time, free amino acid concentrations and expression or activity levels of genes involved in protein or energy metabolism were measured in the longissimus lumborum muscle (LM). The Met5 pigs exhibited a greater activity of creatine kinase in plasma when compared with CONT pigs. The concentrations of free methionine, alpha-aminobutyric acid, anserine, 3-methyl-histidine, lysine, and proline were greater in the LM of Met5 pigs than in CONT pigs. Expression levels of genes involved in protein synthesis, protein breakdown or autophagy were only scarcely affected by the diet. Among ubiquitin ligases, MURF1, a gene known to target creatine kinase and muscle contractile proteins, and OTUD1 coding for a deubiquitinase protease, were up-regulated in the LM of Met5 pigs. A lower activity of citrate synthase, a reduced expression level of ME1 acting in lipogenesis but a higher expression of PPARD regulating energy metabolism, were also observed in the LM of Met5 pigs compared with CONT pigs. Principal component analysis revealed that expression levels of many studied genes involved in protein and energy metabolism were correlated with meat quality traits across dietary treatments, suggesting that subtle modifications in expression of those genes had cumulative effects on the regulation of processes leading to the muscle transformation into meat. In conclusion, dietary methionine supplementation beyond nutritional requirements in pigs during the last days before slaughter modified the free amino acid profile in muscle and its redox capacities, and slightly affected molecular pathways related to protein breakdown and energy metabolism. These modifications were associated with benefits on pork quality traits.

Additional file 1: Table S1. Cross validation of 10 k-folds repeated 10 times for the 11 selected models to predict the relative Average Daily Gain (rADGW0-W6)1. Table S2. Values of the 51 blood variables and relative average daily gain1. Fig. S1. Boxplots for the residuals of the minimal model by hygiene of housing conditions and RFI lines (minimal model = rADGW6-W0 ~ FFA + BAP + HAPTO + ILE + TRP + 1-MH). The model predicted relative ADG measured during the 6 weeks of the testing period (rADGW0-W6). The variables are changes in the concentrations in plasma between two times W0 and W3 calculated as concentrations at W3 minus concentrations at W0 for free fatty acids or FFA, Biological Antioxidant Potential or BAP, haptoglobin or HAPTO, isoleucine or ILE, tryptophan or TRP, 1-methylhistidine or 1-MH. Fig. S2. Boxplots of variables present in at least one selected model. The variables are changes in the concentrations in plasma between two times W0 and W3 calculated as concentrations at W3 minus concentrations at W0 for free fatty acids or FFA, Biological Antioxidant Potential or BAP, haptoglobin or HAPTO, isoleucine or ILE, tryptophan or TRP, 1-methylhistidine or 1-MH, and relative average daily gain calculated between W0 and W6 or rADGW0-W6. Outliers (black points) for the boxplot are values outside the range Quartile(Q)3 + 1.5*interquartile-range (IQR), or Q1–1.5* IQR. Grey points represent the raw values for each variable, with a random noise added to better distinguish them on the X axis. Therefore, X axis has no particular meaning.

The process of oxidative stress occurs all over the production chain of animals and food products. This review summarises insights obtained in different farm species (pigs, ruminants, poultry, and fishes) to underpin the most critical periods for the venue of oxidative stress, namely birth/hatching and weaning/start-feeding phase. Common responses between species are also unravelled in periods of high physiological demands when animals are facing dietary deficiencies in specific nutrients, suggesting that nutritional recommendations must consider the modulation of responses to oxidative stress for optimising production performance and quality of food products. These conditions concern challenges such as heat stress, social stress, and inflammation. The magnitude of the responses is partly dependent on the prior experience of the animals before the challenge, reinforcing the importance of nutrition and other management practices during early periods to promote the development of antioxidant reserves in the animal. When these practices also improved the performance and health of the animal, this further confirms the central role played by oxidative stress in physiologically and environmentally induced perturbations. Difficulties in interpreting responses to oxidative stress arise from the fact that the indicators are only partly shared between studies, and their modulations may also be challenge-specific. A consensus about the best indicators to assess pro-oxidative and antioxidant pathways is of huge demand to propose a synthetic index measurable in a non-invasive way and interpretable along the productive life of the animals.

Proteins showing a differential abundance in adipose tissue with developmental age. (DOCX 42 kb)

Exploration by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of transcriptomic data (all expressed genes) for each tissue to identify outlier samples. Out of 48, 46, 48 and 44 arrays for liver, adipose, muscle and PBMC respectively, 2, 1, 2 and 1 outlier microarrays were identified by PCA using all the expressed genes. For muscle and PBMC, an additional sample was removed because of an abnormal high number of Agilent-flagged spots or an abnormal background distribution on the array. (PPTX 173Â kb)

Proteins in adipose tissue affected by age in a different manner according to fetus genotype. (DOCX 32 kb)

Proteins showing a differential abundance in adipose tissue according to fetus genotype. (DOCX 96 kb)

Representative two dimensional gels of fetal adipose proteins stained by silver nitrate. The first image corresponds to subcutaneous adipose tissue d 90, the second one at d 110 of gestation for pure Large White fetuses. (DOCX 1257 kb)

Primers for target gene expression by qPCR. (DOCX 30 kb)

Adipose tissue is a primary sensor for nutrient availability and regulates many functions including feed intake and energy homeostasis. This study was undertaken to determine the molecular responses of adipose tissue to differences in feed intake and feed efficiency. Subcutaneous adipose tissue was collected from two lines of pigs divergently selected for residual feed intake (RFI), a measure of feed efficiency defined as the difference between actual and expected feed intake, and from a subset of high-RFI pigs that were feed-restricted at the level of the voluntary feed intake of low-RFI pigs during the growing-finishing period. Transcriptomics analyses indicated that the number of genes that were differentially expressed (0.01) between low- and high-RFI pigs ( = 8 per group at each stage) in adipose tissue was much lower when pigs were considered at 19 kg (postweaning) than at 115 kg BW (market weight). Extended investigations were performed at 115 kg BW to compare low-RFI ( = 8), high-RFI ( = 8), and feed-restricted high-RFI ( = 8) pigs. They included in silico pathway analyses of the differentially expressed (DE) genes (0.01) and a complementary proteomic investigation to list adipose proteins with a differential abundance (0.10). Only 23% of the DE genes were affected by both RFI and feed restriction. This indicates that the responses of adipose tissue to RFI difference shared only some common mechanisms with feed intake modulation, notably the regulation of cell cycle (including ) and transferase activity pathway. Two carboxylesterase genes (, ) involved in lipolysis, were among the most overexpressed genes in the low-RFI pigs; they were also affected by feed restriction within the high-RFI line. About 60% of the molecular changes between low- and high-RFI pigs were specific to genetic divergence in feed efficiency, independently of feed intake. Different genes and proteins known to be associated with mitochondrial oxidative metabolism were overexpressed in adipose tissue of low-RFI pigs compared with high-RFI pigs; other proteins participating in the generation of energy were also affected by feed restriction within the high-RFI line. Finally, mitochondrial antioxidant genes were upregulated in low-RFI pigs vs. high-RFI pigs. Altogether, increased oxidative and antioxidant processes in adipose tissue might be associated with improved feed efficiency.

Improving feed efficiency is a relevant strategy to reduce feed cost and environmental waste in livestock production. Selection experiments on residual feed intake (RFI), a measure of feed efficiency, previously indicated that low RFI was associated with lower feed intake, similar growth rate, and greater lean meat content compared with high RFI. To gain insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying these differences, 24 Large White females from 2 lines divergently selected for RFI were examined. Pigs from a low-RFI ("efficient") and high-RFI ("inefficient") line were individually fed ad libitum from 67 d of age (27 kg BW) to slaughter at 115 kg BW (n = 8 per group). Additional pigs of the high-RFI line were feed restricted to the daily feed intake of the ad libitum low-RFI pigs (n = 8) to investigate the impact of selection independently of feed intake. Global gene and protein expression profiles were assessed in the LM collected at slaughter. The analyses involved a porcine commercial microarray and 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis. About 1,000 probes were differentially expressed (P0.01) between RFI lines. Only 10% of those probes were also affected by feed restriction. Gene functional classification indicated a greater expression of genes involved in protein synthesis and a lower expression of genes associated with mitochondrial energy metabolism in the low-RFI pigs compared with the high-RFI pigs. At the protein level, 11 unique identified proteins exhibited a differential abundance (P0.05) between RFI lines. Differentially expressed proteins were generally not significantly affected by feed restriction. Mitochondrial oxidative proteins such as aconitase hydratase, ATP synthase subunit α, and creatine kinase S-type had a lower abundance in the low-RFI pigs, whereas fructose-biphosphate aldolase A and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, 2 proteins involved in glycolysis, had a greater abundance in those pigs compared with high-RFI pigs. Antioxidant proteins such as superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase 3 at the mRNA level and peroxiredoxin-6 at the protein level were also less expressed in LM of the most efficient pigs, likely related to lower oxidative molecule production. Collectively, both the transcriptomic and proteomic approaches revealed a lower oxidative metabolism in muscle of the low-RFI pigs and all these modifications were largely independent of differences in feed intake.

La teneur en lipides intramusculaires est une composante importante de la qualité des produits carnés, et en particulier de leur acceptabilité sensorielle. Les facteurs susceptibles de modifier la quantité de lipides dans les muscles de l’animal au moment de son abattage sont multiples, parmi lesquels son génotype, son type sexuel, son âge et son alimentation. Cependant, les déterminismes métaboliques ou géniques de la teneur en lipides intramusculaires restent mal connus. Des travaux récents montrent que l’importance des flux de lipides dans le muscle et l’orientation d’une balance entre de nombreuses voies impliquées dans la lipogenèse des acides gras d’une part et leur oxydation d’autre part, seraient responsables de l’essentiel de la variabilité de la teneur en lipides intramusculaires durant la période postnatale. Les mécanismes précoces qui président au contrôle du nombre d’adipocytes intramusculaires (c’est-à-dire à la prolifération et différenciation cellulaires) seraient majoritairement à l’origine des différences de teneur en lipides intramusculaires en fonction du génotype de l’animal ou de la sélection génétique intra-race. Les approches à haut débit sans a priori, telles que la transcriptomique et la protéomique, devraient prochainement aboutir à l’identification de nouvelles cibles permettant le contrôle de la teneur en lipides intramusculaires, indépendamment de l’adiposité corporelle des animaux., Muscle lipid content plays a key role in various quality traits of meat and meat-derived products, including sensory acceptability. Different factors are involved in the variation of muscle lipid content in animals at commercial slaughter, including genotype, gender, age, and feeding. However, the underlying metabolic pathways and(or) the putative involved genes still remain to be clarified. Recent studies have put light on the importance of fatty acid fluxes and metabolic balance between various pathways, rather than the control of one single pathway, to be responsible for variability in muscle lipid content during the postnatal period. Early events that determine the number of intramuscular adipocytes (i.e., proliferation and differentiation of adipose cells) would be rather involved in breed and(or) selection-related differences in muscle lipid content. New targets may be identified in the future using transcriptomic and proteomic approaches, to control muscle lipid content independently of body or carcass fatness.

L’amélioration génétique des lapins élevés pour la production de viande a porté jusqu’à présent essentiellement sur les critères de reproduction (taille de portée) pour les souches femelles et plus récemment sur les aspects quantitatifs de la production pour les souches mâles, principalement la vitesse de croissance. Cette sélection a ainsi permis de réduire l’âge d’abattage des lapereaux de 2 semaines en 15 ans, tandis que le poids d’abattage variait peu. S’appuyant sur les résultats obtenus dans les comparaisons entre les différentes races ou souches, les attendus étaient une amélioration de l’efficacité alimentaire, une réduction de l’adiposité des carcasses, mais aussi une dégradation des rendements à l’abattage. Paradoxalement, les études génétiques portant sur les qualités de la carcasse ou de la viande et sur les caractéristiques musculaires restent peu fréquentes. Toutefois, il existe maintenant quelques expériences de sélection intra-souche pour la croissance dans lesquelles les réponses corrélées ont été mesurées. Si l’indice de consommation est bien corrélé négativement avec la vitesse de croissance, ces expériences ne valident pas toutes les évolutions attendues en matière de composition corporelle, notamment pour l’adiposité de la carcasse. En revanche, elles suggèrent dans leur ensemble des relations génétiques faibles entre les caractéristiques de la viande et la vitesse de croissance. La sélection actuellement pratiquée sur la vitesse de croissance a donc peu de conséquences sur les qualités de la viande de lapin., Until now, the genetic improvement of meat rabbits has been devoted to reproduction traits (i.e. litter size) in doe lines, and more recently related to production criteria in buck lines, ie. growth rate. For the last 15 years, this selection has induced a decrease of 2 weeks in slaughter age, whereas weight at slaughter has not changed. Based on comparisons between different breeds or strains, a correlated improvement in feed efficiency, a decrease in carcass fatness, but also the degradation of dressing out percentage, were expected. The genetic studies on carcass and meat quality or muscle characteristics are far from numerous. Recently, some within-breed selection experiments have been performed to investigate correlated responses. Whereas feed consumption ratio was negatively correlated with growth rate, these experiments did not confirm all the expectations for carcass composition, mainly fat content. As a whole, they suggested weak genetic relationships between muscle or meat characteristics and growth rate. The selection currently practised for growth rate has few consequences on meat quality in rabbits.

Both breed and production systems are responsible for production efficiency and quality traits of pork. Effects of breed and production system within breed on growth, body fatness, and adipose tissues traits were assessed in the pure Basque (B, nonselected, local French) and conventional Large White (LW) breeds, reared either in a conventional (C, slatted floor), alternative (A, indoor straw bedding and outdoor area), or extensive (E, free range) system. A total of 100 castrated males were produced in 2 replicates, each involving 50 pigs distributed in 5 treatments based on breed and production system (i.e., BC, BA, BE, LWC, and LWA [10 pigs/group and per replicate]). From 35 kg BW to slaughter at around 145 kg BW, the BC, BA, LWC, and LWA pigs received the same growing and finishing diets, whereas the BE pigs had free access to the natural resources of the E pen and received a standard growing-finishing diet at restricted allowance according to the farming practices of the B pork chain. The B pigs had lower (P0.001) ADG and G:F than the LW pigs and were much older (P0.001) at slaughter. The LWA pigs had similar ADG but lower (P = 0.03) G:F than the LWC. Within the B breed, the BA had higher (P = 0.04) and the BE lower (P0.001) ADG compared with BC pigs. The B pigs had a higher (P0.001) carcass dressing an exhibited around 2-fold higher (P0.001) back fat proportion, perirenal fat weight and LM lipid content than the LW pigs. Compared with C, the A system decreased (P = 0.04) carcass dressing within LW but did not influence carcass traits within B pigs. The E system decreased (P ≤ 0.05) carcass dressing, back fat proportion, and LM lipid content in BE compared with BC pigs. The B pigs exhibited larger (P0.001) adipocytes in both subcutaneous adipose tissue (SCAT) and LM than the LW pigs. Malic enzyme activity was higher in SCAT of B than LW pigs despite their greater fatness, and was higher (P ≤ 0.01) in BA but lower (P0.001) in BE than in BC pigs. The B pigs had higher (P0.001) MUFA but lower (P ≤ 0.006) SFA and PUFA fatty acid percentages in SCAT than the LW pigs. Compared with C, the A system had scarce influence on FA composition within each breed, whereas the E system led to lower (P = 0.015) SFA and greater (P0.001) PUFA in SCAT of the B pigs. Altogether, the E production system can counteract the genetic potential of B pigs for growth rate but also body fatness.

Ingested dietary nutrients and feed energy are partitioned among tissues to sustain body growth. Based on the respective costs of the various metabolic pathways allowing use and storage of feed energy into cells, it may be theorized that daily meal frequency could affect growth, body composition or feed efficiency. This study aimed to determine the effects of daily meal frequency on nutrient partitioning, tissue metabolism and composition, and performance. Young growing pigs (30 kg BW) were offered a same amount of feed either in 2 (M2, n = 15) or 12 (M12, n = 16) meals per day during a 3-wk interventional period. Animals fed twice a day had an accelerated weight gain (+6.4%, P0.05) and exhibited a greater G:F (+4%, P = 0.03) than animals fed 12 meals per day during this period. Basal plasma concentrations of glucose, lactate, triglyceride, urea, and leptin were lower (P0.001) in M2 pigs than in M12 pigs. Meal frequency also changed (P0.001) the time-course profiles of plasma concentrations of glucose, insulin, and lactate in response to meal ingestion. A greater rise and a sharper fall in plasma glucose and insulin levels were observed in M2 pigs compared with M12 pigs. In both groups, similarities were observed in the postprandial time courses of plasma concentrations of insulin and of α-amino nitrogen (used as a measure of total AA). Despite these metabolic responses, tissue lipids, glycogen content, and enzyme activities participating in energy metabolism in muscle and liver were similar (P0.10) in both groups at the end of the trial. Percentage of perirenal fat in the body and depth of dorsal subcutaneous fat tissue were not affected by meal frequency, but kidney weight was lower (-18%, P0.001) in M2 pigs than in M12 pigs. Altogether, the less frequent daily meal intake improves the conversion of feed into weight gain, without marked modifications of tissue composition in young pigs.

A quantitative trait locus (QTL) affecting fatness in a way opposite to expectations based on breed means was mapped to swine chromosome 7 (SSC7) using crosses between Large White (LW) and Meishan (MS) founders. Defining the molecular fatness trait more explicitly would allow deducing positional candidate genes, for which expression differences must be analysed in experimental populations. First, mRNA levels of genes representing sequential steps in adipogenesis or involved in lipid metabolism were studied in backfat of pigs having homozygous LW(QTL7)/LW(QTL7) or heterozygous LW(QTL7)/MS(QTL7) alleles and considered at two ages. mRNA level of DLK1 expressed in preadipocytes was greater in MS(QTL7)/LW(QTL7) pigs than in homozygous pigs at 28 days. Transcript abundances of CEBPA involved in differentiation, the prolipogenic FASN gene and the adipocyte-specific marker FABP4 were lower in MS(QTL7)/LW(QTL7) pigs compared with LW(QTL7)/LW(QTL7) pigs at 150 days. Because these results suggest a lag time in terminal differentiation associated with the MS allele, seven genes in the QTL interval were deduced as promising candidates for the QTL effect by bioinformatics analysis. Among them, PPARD and CDKN1A had lower expression levels in MS(QTL7)/LW(QTL7) pigs at both ages. Genotype-related differences were observed in mRNA levels of PPARD target genes involved in cell differentiation (FZD7) or fatty acid oxidation (ACADL and ACOX1) at 150 days. These results re-evaluate the potential of PPARD to explain part of variation in pig adiposity.

The possibility that maternal diets during gestation could affect growth and tissue development of offspring and program their later phenotype is an emerging challenge in pig production. The objective of the current study was to investigate the effects of contrasted protein levels in diets of pregnant sows on the proteomic features of subcutaneous adipose tissue (SCAT) of the offspring at birth and its possible persistence later in age. Sows were fed control (Con), low (LP), or high protein (HP) diets throughout gestation. A subset of piglets was killed at 1 d of age for SCAT sampling. The remaining piglets were cross-fostered to nonexperimental sows during lactation. They were fed standard diets during postweaning and fattening periods until 186 d of age. Modifications in SCAT protein abundance shortly after birth were investigated by 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis followed by mass spectrometry. A total of 65 spots were found differentially expressed (Por= 0.10) in SCAT of 1-d-old experimental piglets vs. Con piglets. Proteins with a greater abundance in LP piglets compared with Con piglets were involved in pathways related to glucose and fatty acid metabolisms, lipid transport, and regulation of apoptosis. Upregulation of 5 proteins representative of these biological pathways in LP group vs. Con group were further validated (P0.05) by Western blot analyses. Furthermore, the specific activity of the key lipogenic enzyme fatty acid synthase was found greater (P = 0.06) in SCAT of 1-d-old LP piglets than in Con piglets. The main changes evidenced in SCAT of HP piglets compared with Con animals at 1 d of age rather concerned proteins putatively involved in AA metabolism or in protein turnover. Adipose tissue contents in some proteins that had displayed a greater (Por= 0.10) abundance in experimental pigs compared with Con at d 1 (e.g., transaldolase, annexin II, and apolipoprotein A4) were, however, similar (P0.10) in the 3 groups at d 186 of age. Enolase 1 has less abundance (P0.05) in LP pigs compared with Con pigs at this stage. In conclusion, the proteomics tool has allowed the identification of early changes in various molecular pathways of SCAT in response to the levels of maternal protein supply during gestation.

Pen housing has been proposed in rabbits as an alternative to standard-sized cages. Rabbits reared in pens show greater physical activity. This study investigated whether jump exercise could modify body composition, muscle biochemical and histological characteristics, and some meat quality traits, including the biomechanical properties of tendons. Male weaned rabbits of similar BW (793 +/- 11 g) were either reared in giant collective cages and had to jump over obstacles to get food and water for 35 consecutive days (EXE), or confined in small isolated cages (SEDN). Rabbits were weighed weekly to determine ADG (n = 79 EXE; n = 46 SEDN) and ADFI (n = 9 cages in EXE; n = 46 cages in SEDN). At approximately 10 wk of age, rabbits were slaughtered in 2 series. After overnight chilling, carcasses in the first series (n = 30 EXE; n = 27 SEDN) were divided into fore, intermediate, and hind parts. Color and ultimate pH were recorded in the biceps femoris (BF) and LM. The Achilles tendon and patellar ligament were dissected from the legs and cooked. Muscles [semimembranosus proprius, semimembranosus accessorius (SMA), and BF] were harvested from the legs in a subset of animals from the second series (n = 10 in EXE; n = 9 in SEDN). Both ADG and ADFI were slightly reduced (P0.10) in EXE rabbits compared with SEDN rabbits. Exercised rabbits showed a greater (P = 0.01) proportion of hind parts than SEDN rabbits. Enzyme activities of 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase and citrate synthase, which play key roles in fatty acid oxidation and the terminal oxidative degradation of nutrients, respectively, were increased in the semimembranosus proprius, SMA (except citrate synthase), and BF muscles of EXE rabbits compared with SEDN rabbits. Only SMA exhibited a decreased (P = 0.05) activity of the glycolytic enzyme, lactate dehydrogenase, in EXE rabbits compared with SEDN animals. Total lipid content, mean diameter of perimysial adipocytes, and activities of core lipogenic enzymes in the SMA and BF muscles did not differ between EXE and SEDN rabbits. Meat color in BF was shifted toward greater a* (red; P = 0.001) and b* (yellow; P = 0.02) values in EXE rabbits compared with SEDN rabbits. Cooked Achilles tendon and patellar ligaments in the legs had greater stiffness (Por = 0.05) in EXE rabbits compared with SEDN rabbits. This experiment demonstrates that rabbit muscles turn to a more oxidative metabolic pattern in response to jump exercise. The quality of attachment of cooked meat to bone is also improved in active rabbits.

Intramuscular fat content is generally associated with improved sensory quality and better acceptability of fresh pork. However, conclusive evidence is still lacking for the biological mechanisms underlying i.m. fat content variability in pigs. The current study aimed to determine whether variations in i.m. fat content of longissimus muscle are related to i.m. adipocyte cellularity, lipid metabolism, or contractile properties of the whole muscle. To this end, crossbred (Large White x Duroc) pigs exhibiting either a high (2.82 +/- 0.38%, HF) or a low (1.15 +/- 0.14%, LF) lipid content in LM biopsies at 70 kg of BW were further studied at 107 +/- 7 kg of BW. Animals grew at the same rate, but HF pigs at slaughter presented fatter carcasses than LF pigs (P = 0.04). The differences in i.m. fat content between the 2 groups were mostly explained by variation in i.m. adipocyte number (+127% in HF compared with LF groups, P = 0.005). Less difference (+13% in HF compared with LF groups, P = 0.057) was noted in adipocyte diameter, and no significant variation was detected in whole-muscle lipogenic enzyme activities (acetyl-CoA carboxylase, P = 0.9; malic enzyme, P = 0.35; glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, P = 0.75), mRNA levels of sterol-regulatory element binding protein-1 (P = 0.6), or diacylglycerol acyltransferase 1 (P = 0.6). Adipocyte fatty acid binding protein (FABP)-4 protein content in whole LM was 2-fold greater in HF pigs than in LF pigs (P = 0.05), and positive correlation coefficients were found between the FABP-4 protein level and adipocyte number (R2 = 0.47, P = 0.02) and lipid content (R2 = 0.58, P = 0.004). Conversely, there was no difference between groups relative to FABP-3 mRNA (P = 0.46) or protein (P = 0.56) levels, oxidative enzymatic activities (citrate synthase, P = 0.9; beta-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, P = 0.7), mitochondrial (P = 0.5) and peroxisomal (P = 0.12) oxidation rates of oleate, mRNA levels of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation (carnitine-palmitoyl-transferase 1, P = 0.98; peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, P = 0.73) or energy expenditure (uncoupling protein 2, P = 0.92; uncoupling protein 3, P = 0.84), or myosin heavy-chain mRNA proportions (P0.49). The current study suggests that FABP-4 protein content may be a valuable marker of lipid accretion in LM and that i.m. fat content and myofiber type composition can be manipulated independently.

Muscle fat stores at slaughter partly determine the dietetic and sensory quality traits of pork meat. Nutritional strategies during the growing-finishing period are able to modify intramuscular fat content; however, the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. The objective of this study was to determine some of the cellular, biochemical, and molecular bases of muscle fat content variation in response to feeding regimen in pigs. Crossbred pigs of 30 kg BW were allocated to three feeding groups: free access ([C], n = 10) to a standard diet (3.25 kcal of DE/kg, 9.5 g of lysine/kg), standard diet at 75% of the spontaneous voluntary intake ([FR], n = 10), or both low protein and energy intakes ([PR], n = 10) in order to get the same growth rate as the FR pigs and the same body composition as the C pigs. At slaughter (110 kg BW), FR and PR pigs were 30 d older than C pigs (P0.001). In agreement with the protocol, carcass adiposity was similar in PR and reduced (P0.01) in FR pigs compared with C animals. Lipid content in longissimus lumborum muscle was reduced by 25% in FR pigs and increased by 40% in PR pigs compared to C pigs (P0.001). Commensurate variations in the diameter of muscle adipocytes were observed between the three feeding groups (P0.001). The muscle activities of malic enzyme and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, generating reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate for fatty acid synthesis, were depressed (P0.05) in both FR and PR groups, compared to the C group. The expression level of the sterol regulatory element binding protein that was chosen as the putative candidate at the molecular level was not modified by the feeding regimen. No variations in the oxidative enzyme markers were denoted, whereas lactate dehydrogenase activity was reduced by 13% (P0.05) in PR group compared to other groups. In conclusion, moderate long-term feed restriction results in decreased lipogenic capacity of muscle adipocytes and intramuscular fat content. In contrast, the reduction of both protein and energy intakes more likely results in an imbalance between multiple aspects of muscle energy metabolism, in favor of intramuscular fat accretion.

La teneur en lipides d’un tissu est la résultante de plusieurs flux métaboliques (dépôt, synthèse, utilisation). Cet article présente les principales caractéristiques de la synthèse des lipides chez le lapin, dans le muscle comparativement aux tissus adipeux visibles et au foie. Le potentiel de synthèse de novo exprimé par le muscle augmente avec l’âge de l’animal, en parallèle à l’accumulation des triglycérides dans les adipocytes intramusculaires. L’activité des enzymes qui fournissent le NADPH nécessaire à la synthèse des acides gras est réduite si l’animal est soumis à une restriction alimentaire en fin d’engraissement, et ceci en parallèle avec une baisse de la teneur en lipides des muscles. A valeur énergétique égale, la nature des acides gras présents dans le régime alimentaire est sans incidence sur l’activité des enzymes de la lipogenèse, mais peut moduler la quantité et la nature des lipides intramusculaires. Des études ultérieures devront être conduites pour évaluer l’importance respective des différentes voies métaboliques dans la détermination de la teneur finale en lipides des muscles., The amount of triglycerides stored in a tissue results from the equilibrium between fatty acid uptake from circulating triglycerides, de novo fatty acid synthesis, and lipid hydrolysis. The aim of this article is to describe the specificity and some of the factors of variation of de novo lipogenesis in the muscle, compared to adipose tissues and liver in the rabbit. Age-related patterns in lipogenic enzyme activities paralleled age-related increase in intramuscular lipid contents. Restricted feeding during fattening resulted in a decrease in muscle lipid content and NADPH-producing lipogenic enzymes. The type of fat included in the diet did not have any influence on lipogenic enzyme activities, but altered the quantity and nature of the lipid stored within the muscle. Further studies are needed to determine the respective importance of de novo lipogenesis, LPL pathway and lipid mobilisation in tissue lipid content.

La maîtrise de la qualité intrinsèque des muscles constitue aujourd’hui un enjeu pour le maintien de la consommation de viande de lapin en France. L’objet de cet article est de présenter les mécanismes de mise en place, d’évolution, et les facteurs de variation des principales caractéristiques musculaires du lapin. Le lapereau présente un faible degré de maturité musculaire à la naissance. La période postnatale est caractérisée par une augmentation de la taille des fibres, ce qui permet un accroissement de la masse musculaire. Dans le même temps, les caractéristiques qualitatives des fibres musculaires se modifient. Les caractéristiques contractiles présentent ainsi une importante plasticité jusqu’à la fin de la période d’allaitement (1 mois). Les caractéristiques métaboliques se différencient au cours de cette période d’allaitement puis évoluent jusqu’à un état adulte atteint à 2 mois d’âge. La période postnatale se caractérise également par une augmentation de la teneur en lipides du muscle, liée à la mise en réserve de triglycérides dans les adipocytes qui sont groupés le long des faisceaux de fibres. La mise en place de ces adipocytes intramusculaires a lieu au cours de la période d’allaitement, puis leur nombre et leur taille augmentent avec l’âge de l’animal, au moins jusqu’à 5 mois. Les caractéristiques musculaires relèvent pour partie d’un déterminisme génétique mais peuvent être également modifiées par des facteurs d’élevage. Cependant, seules des manipulations précoces (in utero et allaitement) permettraient de contrôler à la fois les caractéristiques qualitatives des fibres musculaires et celles des lipides intramusculaires., Muscle characteristics are involved in many aspects of meat quality. The aim of this paper is to present the differentiation, growth and variations of the main muscular characteristics in the rabbit. Rabbit muscles are very immature at birth. Postnatal life is characterized by an increase in the fiber size, leading to an increase in the muscle weight. Dramatic changes affect the contractile fiber types during all the first postnatal month. Differentiation of the metabolic fiber types takes place during this period and continues until 2 months of age. During the post-weaning period, intramuscular lipids increase with age. This increase is mainly associated with changes in triglyceride content stored in adipocytes clustered along the myofibers. The ontogeny of intramuscular adipocytes takes place during the perinatal period. Thereafter, both adipocyte number and adipocyte size increase until 5 months of age. Genetic and rearing factors can influence the muscle characteristics, However, only manipulations in utero or during the lactation period seem to be able to influence muscle fiber development and intramuscular fat development together.

Additional file 1: Table S1. Effects of RFI line and hygiene conditions on tissue weights of pigs. Weights of adipose tissues collected at the perirenal (PRAT) or subcutaneous (SCAT) locations, loin skeletal muscle (LL: longissimus lumborum) and liver in pigs at the two time points (week 6 and week 13–14) are given in this additional Table.

Additional file 1: Table S1. Effects of RFI line and hygiene conditions on tissue weights of pigs. Weights of adipose tissues collected at the perirenal (PRAT) or subcutaneous (SCAT) locations, loin skeletal muscle (LL: longissimus lumborum) and liver in pigs at the two time points (week 6 and week 13–14) are given in this additional Table.

International audience; A granular instability driven by gravity is studied experimentally and numerically. The instability arises as grains fall in a closed Hele-Shaw cell where a layer of dense granular material is positioned above a layer of air. The initially flat front defined by the grains subsequently develops into a pattern of falling granular fingers separated by rising bubbles of air. A transient coarsening of the front is observed right from the start by a finger merging process. The coarsening is later stabilized by new fingers growing from the center of the rising bubbles. The structures are quantified by means of Fourier analysis and quantitative agreement between experiment and computation is shown. This analysis also reveals scale invariance of the flow structures under overall change of spatial scale. © 2009 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.