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We derived stellar ages and metallicities [Z/H] for $\sim$70 passive early type galaxies (ETGs) selected from VANDELS survey over the redshift range 1.0$$0.0, a percentage which rises to $\sim$90 per cent for log(M$_*$/M$_\odot$)$>$11 where the mean metallicity is [Z/H]=0.17$\pm$0.1. A comparison with homogeneous measurements at similar and lower redshift does not show any metallicity evolution over the redshift range 0.0$11.0 host stellar populations with [Z/H]>0.05, formed over short timescales ($\Delta{t50}$$$100 M$_\odot$/yr) in high mass density regions (log($\Sigma_{1kpc}$)$>$10 M$_\odot$/kpc$^2$). This sharp picture tends to blur at lower masses: log(M$_*$/M$_\odot$)$\sim$10.6 galaxies can host either old stars with [Z/H]$$0.0, depending on the duration ($\Delta{t50}$) of the SF. The relations between galaxy mass, age and metallicities are therefore largely set up ab initio as part of the galaxy formation process. Mass, SFR and SF time-scale all contribute to shape up the stellar mass-metallicity relation with the mass that modulates metals retention., Comment: 18 pages + Appendix, 16 figures, 5 tables. Accepted for publication in MNRAS

We present a dynamical analysis of a quasar-host galaxy at $z\simeq 6$ (SDSS J2310+1855) using a high-resolution ALMA observation of the [CII] emission line. The observed rotation curve was fitted with mass models that considered the gravitational contribution of a thick gas disc, a thick star-forming stellar disc, and a central mass concentration, which is likely due to a combination of a spheroidal component (i.e. a stellar bulge) and a supermassive black hole (SMBH). The SMBH mass of $5\times 10^9\ \rm M_{\odot}$, previously measured using the CIV and MgII emission lines, is not sufficient to explain the high velocities in the central regions. Our dynamical model suggests the presence of a stellar bulge with a mass of $\rm M_{bulge}\sim 10^{10}\ \rm M_{\odot}$ in this object, when the Universe was younger than 1 Gyr. To finally be located on the local $M_{\rm SMBH}-M_{\rm bulge}$ relation, the bulge mass should increase by a factor of $\sim$40 from $z=6$ to 0, while the SMBH mass should grow by a factor of 4 at most. This points towards asynchronous galaxy-BH co-evolution. Imaging with the JWST will allow us to validate this scenario., Comment: 8 pages, 4 figures, 3 tables. Accepted by A&A

We present Lyman continuum (LyC) radiation escape fraction $f_{\rm{esc}}$ measurements for 183 spectroscopically confirmed star-forming galaxies in the redshift range $3.11 < z < 3.53$ in the \textit{Chandra} Deep Field South. We use ground-based imaging to measure $f_{\rm{esc}}$, and use ground- and space-based photometry to derive galaxy physical properties using spectral energy distribution (SED) fitting. We additionally derive [O III]+H$\beta$ equivalent widths (that fall in the observed K band) by including nebular emission in the SED fitting. After removing foreground contaminants, we report the discovery of 11 new candidate LyC leakers, with absolute LyC escape fractions, $f_{\rm{esc}}$ in the range $0.14-0.85$. From non-detections, we place $1\sigma$ upper limits of $f_{\rm{esc}}300$A. For candidate LyC leakers, we find a weak negative correlation between $f_{\rm{esc}}$ and galaxy stellar masses, no correlation between $f_{\rm{esc}}$ specific star-formation rates (sSFRs) and a positive correlation between $f_{\rm{esc}}$ and EW$_0$([O III]+H$\beta$). The weak/no correlations between stellar mass and sSFRs may be explained by misaligned viewing angles and/or non-coincident timescales of starburst activity and periods of high $f_{\rm{esc}}$. Alternatively, escaping radiation may predominantly occur in highly localised star-forming regions, or $f_{\rm{esc}}$ measurements may be impacted by stochasticity of the intervening neutral medium, obscuring any global trends with galaxy properties. These hypotheses have important consequences for models of reionisation.

To better understand the ionizing properties of galaxies in the EoR, we investigate deep, rest-frame ultraviolet (UV) spectra of $\simeq 500$ star-forming galaxies at $3 \leq z \leq 5$ selected from the public ESO-VANDELS spectroscopic survey. The absolute ionizing photon escape fraction ($f_{\rm esc}^{\rm abs}$) is derived by combining absorption line measurements with estimates of the UV attenuation. The ionizing production efficiency ($\xi_{ion}$) is calculated by fitting the far-UV (FUV) stellar continuum of the VANDELS galaxies. We find that the $f_{\rm esc}^{\rm abs}$ and $\xi_{ion}$ parameters increase towards low-mass, blue UV-continuum slopes and strong Ly$\alpha$ emitting galaxies, and both are just slightly higher-than-average for the UV-faintest galaxies in the sample. Potential Lyman Continuum Emitters (LCEs) and selected Lyman Alpha Emitters (LAEs) show systematically higher $\xi_{ion}$ ($\log \xi_{ion}$ (Hz\erg) $\approx 25.38, 25.41$) than non-LCEs and non-LAEs ($\log \xi_{ion}$ (Hz\erg) $\approx 25.18, 25.14$) at similar UV magnitudes. This indicates very young underlying stellar populations ($\approx 10~{\rm Myr}$) at relatively low metallicities ($\approx 0.2~{\rm Z_{\odot}}$). The FUV non-ionizing spectra of potential LCEs is characterized by very blue UV slopes ($\leq -2$), enhanced Ly$\alpha$ emission ($\leq -25$A), strong UV nebular lines (e.g., high CIV1550/CIII]1908 $\geq 0.75$ ratios), and weak absorption lines ($\leq 1$A). The latter suggests the existence of low gas-column-density channels in the interstellar medium which enables the escape of ionizing photons. By comparing our VANDELS results against other surveys in the literature, our findings imply that the ionizing budget in the EoR was likely dominated by UV-faint, low-mass and dustless galaxies., Comment: 25 pages, 18 figures, 2 tables; accepted for publication in MNRAS on April 24, 2023

In the local universe, galaxies in clusters show different properties compared to more isolated systems. Understanding how this difference originates and whether it is already in place at high redshift is still a matter of debate. Thanks to uniquely deep optical spectra from the VANDELS survey, we investigate environmental effects on the stellar mass-metallicity relation (MZR) for a sample of ~1000 star-forming galaxies at 2, Comment: Accepted for publication in A&A ; 22 pages, 15 figures, 2 tables, and 1 Appendix

It is a widespread opinion that hydrogen reionization is mainly driven by primeval star-forming galaxies, with a minor role of high-z active galactic nuclei. Recent observations, however, challenge this notion, indicating a number of issues related to a galaxy-driven reionization scenario. We provide here an updated assessment of the space density of relatively faint (M1450~-22.5) AGNs at zspec~5.5 in order to improve the estimate of the photo-ionization rate contribution from accreting super massive black holes. Exploiting deep UV rest-frame ground-based spectra collected at the Very Large Telescope on the CANDELS/GOODS-South field and deep Chandra X-ray images in the CANDELS/GOODS-North and EGS areas, we find two relatively bright (M1450~-22.5) AGNs at zspec~5.5. We derive an AGN space density of Phi=1.29x10^-6 cMpc^-3 at z~5.5 and M1450~-22.5 by simply dividing their observed number by the cosmological volume in the range 5.05, in contrast with previous claims mostly based on standard color selection, possibly affected by significant incompleteness. Our estimate for the AGN photo-ionization rate at z~5.5 is in agreement with the observed values at similar redshifts, which are needed to keep the intergalactic medium highly ionized. Upcoming JWST and giant ground based telescopes observations will improve the study of high-z AGNs and their contribution to the reionization of the Universe., Comment: Accepted for publication in ApJ. 21 pages, 6 figures, 4 tables

Context. The advent of deep, multi-wavelength surveys, together with the availability of extensive numerical simulations, now allow us for the systematic search and study of (proto)clusters and their surrounding environment as a function of redshift. Aims. We aim to define the environment and to identify overdensities in the VANDELS Chandra Deep Field-South (CDFS) and UKIDSS Ultra Deep Survey (UDS) fields. We want to investigate whether we can use Lyα emission to obtain additional information of the environment properties and whether Lyα emitters show different characteristics as a function of their environment. Methods. We estimated local densities using a three-dimensional algorithm which works in the RA-dec-redshift space. We took advantage of the physical parameters of all the sources in the VANDELS fields to study their properties as a function of environment. In particular, we focused on the rest-frame U − V color to evaluate the stage of evolution of the galaxies located in the overdensities and in the field. Then we selected a sample of 131 Lyα-emitting galaxies (EW(Lyα) > 0 Å), unbiased with respect to environmental density, from the first two seasons of the VANDELS survey to study their location with respect to the over- or under-dense environment and infer whether they are useful tracers of overdense regions. Results. We identify 13 (proto)cluster candidates in the CDFS and nine in the UDS at 2 < z < 4, based on photometric and spectroscopic redshifts from VANDELS and from all the available literature. No significant difference is observed in the rest-frame U − V color between field and galaxies located within the identified overdensities, but the star-forming galaxies in overdense regions tend to be more massive and to have low specific SFRs than in the field. We study the distribution of the VANDELS Lyα emitters (LAEVs) and we find that Lyα emitters lie preferentially outside of overdense regions as the majority of the galaxies with spectroscopic redshifts from VANDELS. The LAEVs in overdense regions tend to have low Lyα equivalent widths and low specific SFRs, and they also tend to be more massive than the LAEVs in the field. Their stacked Lyα profile shows a dominant red peak and a hint of a blue peak. There is evidence that their Lyα emission is more extended and offset with respect to the UV continuum. Conclusions. LAEVs are likely to be influenced by the environment. In fact, our results favour a scenario that implies outflows of low expansion velocities and high HI column densities for galaxies in overdense regions. An outflow with low expansion velocity could be related to the way galaxies are forming stars in overdense regions; the high HI column density can be a consequence of the gravitational potential of the overdensity. Therefore, Lyα-emitting galaxies can provide useful insights on the environment in which they reside.

This paper describes the observations and the first data release (DR1) of the ESO public spectroscopic survey "VANDELS, a deep VIMOS survey of the CANDELS CDFS and UDS fields". VANDELS' main targets are star-forming galaxies at 2.4, Comment: Submitted to A&A

Modifications of the equations of general relativity at large distances offer one possibility to explain the observed properties of our Universe without invoking a cosmological constant. Numerous proposals for such modified gravity cosmologies exist, but often their consequences for structure formation in the non-linear sector are not yet accurately known. In this work, we employ high-resolution numerical simulations of f(R)-gravity models coupled with a semi-analytic model (SAM) for galaxy formation to obtain detailed predictions for the evolution of galaxy properties. The f(R)-gravity models imply the existence of a `fifth-force', which is however locally suppressed, preserving the successes of general relativity on solar system scales. We show that dark matter haloes in f(R)-gravity models are characterized by a modified virial scaling with respect to the LCDM scenario, reflecting a higher dark matter velocity dispersion at a given mass. This effect is taken into account in the SAM by an appropriate modification of the mass--temperature relation. We find that the statistical properties predicted for galaxies (such as the stellar mass function and the cosmic star formation rate) in f(R)-gravity show generally only very small differences relative to LCDM, smaller than the dispersion between the results of different SAM models, which can be viewed as a measure of their systematic uncertainty. We also demonstrate that galaxy bias is not able to disentangle between f(R)-gravity and the standard cosmological scenario. However, f(R)-gravity imprints modifications in the linear growth rate of cosmic structures at large scale, which can be recovered from the statistical properties of large galaxy samples., 9 pages; 4 figures; MNRAS submitted

We compare state-of-the-art semi-analytic models of galaxy formation as well as advanced sub-halo abundance matching models with a large sample of early-type galaxies from SDSS at z < 0.3. We focus our attention on the dependence of median sizes of central galaxies on host halo mass. The data do not show any difference in the structural properties of early-type galaxies with environment, at fixed stellar mass. All hierarchical models considered in this work instead tend to predict a moderate to strong environmental dependence, with the median size increasing by a factor of about 1.5-3 when moving from low to high mass host haloes. At face value the discrepancy with the data is highly significant, especially at the cluster scale, for haloes above log Mhalo > 14. The convolution with (correlated) observational errors reduces some of the tension. Despite the observational uncertainties, the data tend to disfavour hierarchical models characterized by a relevant contribution of disc instabilities to the formation of spheroids, strong gas dissipation in (major) mergers, short dynamical friction timescales, and very short quenching timescales in infalling satellites. We also discuss a variety of additional related issues, such as the slope and scatter in the local size-stellar mass relation, the fraction of gas in local early-type galaxies, and the general predictions on satellite galaxies., 27 pages, 14 figures, 2 tables. MNRAS, in press

We compare predictions of cooled masses and cooling rates from three stripped-down Semi-Analytic Models (SAMs) of galaxy formation with the results of N-body+SPH simulations with gas particle mass of 3.9x10^6 Msun, where radiative cooling of a gas of primordial composition is implemented. We also run a simulation where cooling is switched on at redshift ~2, in order to test cooling models in a regime in which their approximations are expected to be valid. We confirm that cooling models implemented in SAMs are able to predict the amount of cooled mass at z=0 to within ~20 per cent. However, some relevant discrepancies are found. (i) When the contribution from poorly resolved halos is subtracted out, SAMs tend to under-predict by ~30 per cent the mass that cools in the infall-dominated regime. (ii) At large halo masses SAMs tend to over-predict cooling rates, though the numerical result may be affected by the use of SPH. (iii) As found in our previous work, cooling rates are found to be significantly affected by model details: simulations disfavour models with large cores and with quenching of cooling at major mergers. (iv) When cooling is switched on at z~2, cold gas accumulates very quickly in the simulated halos. This accumulation is reproduced by SAMs with varying degrees of accuracy., Comment: 20 pages, 12 figures, accepted by MNRAS

We study the observed cosmic ionizing background as a constraint on the nature of the sources responsible for the reionization of the Universe. In earlier work, we showed that extrapolations of the Ultra-Violet Luminosity Function (LF) of Lyman Break Galaxies (LBGs) at fixed Lyman continuum photon escape fraction are not able to reproduce the redshift evolution of this background. Here, we employ extrapolations of the high-z LFs to describe the contribution of LBGs to the ionizing photon rate, taking into account the smoothing of the baryonic perturbations, due to the background itself (i.e. the filtering mass), as well as a possible sharp increase of the escape fraction in dwarf galaxies. Under the hypothesis of a dominant contribution of LBGs to cosmic reionization, our results suggest that sources fainter than the current observational limits should be characterised by escape fractions of the order of ~0.1-0.3 (larger than the current estimates for bright galaxies) to account for a z>6 reionization and the measured evolution of cosmic ionizing background, at the same time. The contribution to the background from quasars turns out to be relevant at z, 9 pages, 6 figures, MNRAS accepted

The history of a galaxy is encoded in its morphology: the angular momentum and dissipative properties of gas leads to the formation of a disk, within which stars form; mergers of galaxies and tidal interactions randomize stellar orbits, forming a bulge; and the presence or lack of a gas disk drives the level of disk star formation and (apparently) spiral features. The history of a galaxy is also encoded in its environment: sub-halos and their galaxies rarely merge, except at the bottom of the potential well (the centre of the main halo) in which they live; and gas disks and the hot gas which feeds them can only be stripped in a dense surrounding medium, found only in massive haloes (e.g. [Chung et al., ApJ 138, 1741 (2009), McCarthy et al., MNRAS 383, 593 (2008)]). To distinguish the mechanisms driving galaxy evolution, we examine the halo mass dependence of morphology separately for central and satellite galaxies at z ∼ 0. We place constraints on evolution utilizing a variety of physical prescriptions applied to semi-analytic models and compared to a SDSS-RC3 matched sample at z ∼ 0. We find ellipticals primarily at the centre of Mhalo ≳ 1013 M⊙ haloes, compatible with expectations of bulge growth in mergers; S0s and passive disk galaxies are created via two independent channels: as central galaxies in Mhalo ≳ 1012 M⊙ haloes, with star formation suppressed possibly as a result of AGN feedback, and as satellite galaxies in Mhalo ≳ 1013 M⊙ haloes in which stripping of the hot gas associated to a galaxy is probably responsible for the suppression.

We use ultra-deep ultraviolet VLT/VIMOS intermediate-band and VLT/FORS1 narrow-band imaging in the GOODS Southern field to derive limits on the distribution of the escape fraction (f_esc) of ionizing radiation for L >~ L*(z=3) Lyman Break Galaxies (LBGs) at redshift 3.4--4.5. Only one LBG, at redshift z=3.795, is detected in its Lyman continuum (LyC; S/N~5.5), the highest redshift galaxy currently known with a direct detection. Its ultraviolet morphology is quite compact (R_eff=0.8, kpc physical). Three out of seven AGN are also detected in their LyC, including one at redshift z=3.951 and z850 = 26.1. From stacked data (LBGs) we set an upper limit to the average f_esc in the range 5%--20%, depending on the how the data are selected (e.g., by magnitude and/or redshift). We undertake extensive Monte Carlo simulations that take into account intergalactic attenuation, stellar population synthesis models, dust extinction and photometric noise in order to explore the moments of the distribution of the escaping radiation. Various distributions (exponential, log-normal and Gaussian) are explored. We find that the median f_esc is lower than ~6% with an 84% percentile limit not larger than 20%. If this result remains valid for fainter LBGs down to current observational limits, then the LBG population might be not sufficient to account for the entire photoionization budget at the redshifts considered here, with the exact details dependent upon the assumed ionizing background and QSO contribution thereto. It is possible that f_esc depends on the UV luminosity of the galaxies, with fainter galaxies having higher f_esc, and estimates of f_esc from a sample of faint LBG from the HUDF (i775, Comment: 58 pages, 23 figures; submitted to ApJ, revised version in response to referee's comments

Galaxies grow primarily via accretion-driven star formation in discs and merger-driven growth of bulges. These processes are implicit in semi-analytical models of galaxy formation, with bulge growth in particular relating directly to the hierarchical build-up of halos and their galaxies. In this paper, we consider several implementations of two semi-analytical models. Focusing on implementations in which bulges are formed during mergers only, we examine the fractions of elliptical galaxies and both passive and star-forming disk galaxies as functions of stellar and halo mass, for central and satellite systems. This is compared to an observational cross-matched SDSS+RC3 z ~ 0 sample of galaxies with accurate visual morphological classifications and M_{stellar} > 10^10.5 M_{sol}. The models qualitatively reproduce the observed increase of elliptical fraction with stellar mass, and with halo mass for central galaxies, supporting the idea that observed ellipticals form during major mergers. However, the overall elliptical fraction produced by the models is much too high compared with the z ~ 0 data. Since the "passive" -- i.e. non-star-forming -- fractions are approximately reproduced, and since the fraction which are star-forming disc galaxies is also reproduced, the problem is that the models overproduce ellipticals at the expense of passive S0 and spiral galaxies. Bulge-growth implementations (tuned to reproduce simulations) which allow the survival of residual discs in major mergers still destroy too much of the disc. Increasing the lifetime of satellites, or allowing significant disc regrowth around merger remnants, merely increases the fraction of star-forming disc galaxies. Instead, it seems necessary to reduce the mass ratios of merging galaxies, so that most mergers produce modest bulge growth in disc-galaxy remnants instead of ellipticals. [Abridged], latex, 20 pages, 13 figures. Accepted by Monthly Notices. Source package includes full version of Table 1 from paper (file sdssrc3_table_for_paper.tab)

WeestimatedblackholemassesandEddingtonratiosforasampleof X-ray-selectedactivegalacticnuclei(AGNs) inthefieldscoveredbytheGreatObservatoryOriginsDeepSurvey(GOODS).Thespannedrangesinredshift(0:4 < z < 1) and hard X-ray luminosity(10 42 PLX P4 ; 10 43 ergss � 1 )allowus tostudy arepresentative subsampleofthe main contributors to the 2Y10 keV X-ray background. Nuclear and bulge magnitudes in four bands have been measured via a two-dimensional decomposition applied toHSTACS images. Using the black hole versus bulge luminosity relation and the intrinsic nuclear emission, we derived the black hole mass and the AGN bolometric luminosity. Wefindinoursamplethat(1)theX-rayYtoYopticalindicesarelargerthaninopticallyselectedQSOs,asexpecteddue to the X-ray selection); (2) the X-ray bolometric corrections are generally small, suggesting a decrease with the nuclear luminosity; (3) the Eddington ratios are about a factor 10 below the values found at higher redshift and luminosity; (4) the central black holes have rather largemasses; and (5) at least for z P0:8, a scarceness of black holes with

We present the MOdel for the Rise of GAlaxies aNd Active nuclei (MORGANA). Starting from the merger trees of dark matter halos and a model for the evolution of substructure within the halos, the complex physics of baryons is modeled with a set of state-of-the-art models that describe the mass, metal and energy flows between the various components and phases of a galaxy. The processes of shock-heating and cooling, star formation, feedback, galactic winds and super-winds, accretion onto BHs and AGN feedback are described by new models. In particular, the evolution of the halo gas explicitly follows the thermal and kinetic energies of the hot and cold phases, while star formation and feedback follow the results of the multi-phase model by Monaco (2004a). The increased level of sophistication allows to move from a phenomenological description of gas physics, based on simple scalings with the depth of the DM halo potential, toward a fully physically motivated one. The comparison of the predictions of MORGANA with a basic set of galactic data reveals from the one hand an overall rough agreement, and from the other hand highlights a number of well- or less-known problems: (i) producing the cutoff of the luminosity function requires to force the quenching of the late cooling flows by AGN feedback, (ii) the normalization of the Tully-Fisher relation of local spirals cannot be recovered unless the dark matter halos are assumed to have a very low concentration, (iii) the mass function of HI gas is not easily fitted at small masses, unless a similarly low concentration is assumed, (iv) there is an excess of small elliptical galaxies at z=0. These discrepancies, more than the points of agreement with data, give important clues on the missing ingredients of galaxy formation. (ABRIDGED), Comment: 35 pages, figures included, uses mn2e.cls. Revised cooling model, results are slightly changed, conclusions are unchanged. MNRAS, in press