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The use of Automated Peritoneal Dialysis (APD) in its various forms has increased over the past few years mainly in developed countries. This could be attributed to improved cycler design, apparent lifestyle benefits and the ability to achieve adequacy and ultrafiltration targets. However, the dilemma of choosing the superior modality between APD and Continuous Ambulatory Peritoneal Dialysis (CAPD) has not yet been resolved. When it comes to fast transporters and assisted PD, APD is certainly considered the most suitable Peritoneal Dialysis (PD) modality. Improved patients’ compliance, lower intraperitoneal pressure and possibly lower incidence of peritonitis have been also associated with APD. However, concerns regarding increased cost, a more rapid decline in residual renal function, inadequate sodium removal and disturbed sleep are APD’s setbacks. Besides APD superiority over CAPD in fast transporters, the other medical advantages of APD still remain controversial. In any case, APD should be readily available for all patients starting PD and the most important indication for its implementation remains patient’s choice. © 2020, Springer Nature B.V.

Despite optimal treatment of diabetic kidney disease (DKD) with adequate blood pressure control and agents blocking the renin-angiotensin-system (RAS), the residual cardiorenal risk of these patients remains substantially high. There is, therefore, an unmet need for additional therapies effective to retard the progression of DKD and improve cardiovascular outcomes in this high-risk population. Sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT-2) inhibitors represent a novel drug class that received regulatory approval for improving glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes and preserved kidney function. Large outcome trials designed to test their cardiovascular safety profile showed an unexpected improvement in cardiovascular outcomes and also suggested a slower progression of DKD with SGLT-2 inhibition. The Canagliflozin and Renal Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes and Nephropathy (CREDENCE), a trial that was designed to specifically investigate the renoprotective properties of SGLT-2 inhibitors in patients with overt DKD already receiving guideline-based therapy with a RAS-blocker, was prematurely terminated due to an impressive benefit of canagliflozin on kidney and cardiovascular outcomes. These impressive results refine the role and the indication of SGLT-2 inhibitors as a cardio-and renoprotective strategy in patients with DKD. In this article, we provide an overview of the available clinical-trial evidence and explore the mechanisms mediating the cardiorenal protection afforded by SGLT-2 inhibitors. We conclude with perspectives for a potential beneficial effect of this novel drug class in patients with non-diabetic kidney disease. © 2021 Bentham Science Publishers.

One of the main limitations to successful long-term use of peritoneal dialysis (PD) as a renal replacement therapy is the harmful effects of PD solutions to the structure and function of the peritoneal membrane (PM). In PD, the PM serves as a semipermeable membrane that, due to exposure to PD solutions, undergoes structural alterations, including peritoneal fibrosis, vasculopathy, and neoangiogenesis. In recent decades, oxidative stress (OS) has emerged as a novel risk factor for mortality and cardiovascular disease in PD patients. Moreover, it has become evident that OS plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis and development of the chronic, progressive injury of the PM. In this review, we aimed to present several aspects of OS in PD patients, including the pathophysiologic effects on the PM, clinical implications, and possible therapeutic antioxidant strategies that might protect the integrity of PM during PD therapy. © 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

Arterial calcification is highly prevalent in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients and is associated with cardiovascular (CV) morbidity and mortality. Patients at early CKD stages are more likely to suffer a fatal CV event than to develop end-stage renal disease and require hemodialysis treatment. The heavy CV burden of these patients cannot be solely explained by traditional calcification risk factors. Moreover, the pathophysiologic mechanisms underlying this association are complex and yet not fully understood. Although vascular calcification was regarded as a passive degenerative process for over a century, this theory changed by recent evidence that pointed toward an active process, where calcification promoters and inhibitors were involved. Matrix Gla Protein (MGP) has been established as a strong inhibitor of calcification both in vitro and in vivo. Not only it prevents mineralization of the arterial wall, but it is the only factor that can actually reverse it. To become fully active, MGP must undergo carboxylation of specific protein bound glutamate residues, a process fully dependent on the availability of vitamin K. Low vitamin K status leads to inactive, uncarboxylated forms of MGP and has been repeatedly associated with accelerated vascular calcification. Aim of this review is to present the pathophysiologic mechanisms underlying the activation and function of MGP and review the existing, accumulating data regarding the association between vitamin K, MGP and vascular calcification/CV disease in CKD patients. © Copyright © 2020 Roumeliotis, Dounousi, Salmas, Eleftheriadis and Liakopoulos.

The pathophysiology of chronic kidney disease–mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD) is complex and multifactorial. Recent studies have identified a link between microRNAs (miRNAs) and bone loss. In this study, we investigated the expression of miRNAs in CKD-MBD. In this case-control study, we included thirty patients with CKD-MBD (cases) and 30 age-and gender-matched healthy individuals (controls). Bone mineral density (BMD) and trabecular bone score (TBS) evaluation was performed with dual X-ray absorptiometry. The selected panel of miRNAs included: hsa-miRNA-21-5p; hsa-miRNA-23a-3p; hsa-miRNA-24-2-5p; hsa-miRNA-26a-5p; hsa-miRNA-29a-3; hsa-miRNA-124-3p; hsa-miRNA-2861. The majority of cases had low BMD values. The relative expression of miRNA-21-5p was 15 times lower [fold regulation (FR): −14.7 ± 8.1, p = 0.034), miRNA-124-3p, 6 times lower (FR: −5.9 ± 4, p = 0.005), and miRNA-23a-3p, 4 times lower (FR: −3.8 ± 2.0, p = 0.036) in cases compared to controls. MiRNA-23a-3p was significantly and inversely correlated with TBS, adjusted for calcium metabolism and BMD values (beta = −0.221, p = 0.003, 95% CI −0.360, −0,081) in cases. In a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis, expression of miRNA-124-3p demonstrated 78% sensitivity and 83% specificity in identifying CKD patents with osteoporosis. Serum expression of miRNAs related to osteoblasts (miRNA-23a-3p) and osteoclasts (miRNA-21-5p, miRNA-124-3p) is significantly altered in patients with CKD-MBD. © 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Cre.

An association study was conducted to investigate the relation between 14 variants of glucose transporter 1 gene (SLC2A1) and the risk of type 2 diabetes (T2DM) leading to nephropathy. We also performed a meta-analysis of 11 studies investigating association between diabetic nephropathy (DN) and SLC2A1 variants. The cohort included 197 cases (T2DM with nephropathy), 155 diseased controls (T2DM without nephropathy) and 246 healthy controls. The association of variants with disease progression was tested using generalized odds ratio (ORG). The risk of type 2 diabetes leading to nephropathy was estimated by the OR of additive and co-dominant models. The mode of inheritance was assessed using the degree of dominance index (h-index). We synthesized results of 11 studies examining association between 5 SLC2A1 variants and DN. ORG was used to assess the association between variants and DN using random effects models. Significant results were derived for co-dominant model of rs12407920 [OR = 2.01 (1.17–3.45)], rs841847 [OR = 1.73 (1.17–2.56)] and rs841853 [OR = 1.74 (1.18–2.55)] and for additive model of rs3729548 [OR = 0.52 (0.29–0.90)]. The mode of inheritance for rs12407920, rs841847 and rs841853 was ‘dominance of each minor allele’ and for rs3729548 ‘non-dominance’. Frequency of one haplotype (C-G-G-A-T-C-C-T-G-T-C-C-A-G) differed significantly between cases and healthy controls [p = .014]. Regarding meta-analysis, rs841853 contributed to an increased risk of DN [(ORG = 1.43 (1.09–1.88) ORG = 1.58 (1.01–2.48)] between diseased controls versus cases and healthy controls versus cases, respectively. Further studies confirm the association of rs12407920, rs841847, rs841853, as well as rs3729548 and the risk of T2DM leading to nephropathy. 40 1 561 576

Background-aims: Phosphorus nutritional knowledge level of hemodialysis patients and renal nurses has been found to be low, while respective knowledge of nephrologists has not been studied yet. There are equivocal results regarding the association of phosphorus nutritional knowledge level and serum phosphorus values. The aim of this study was to assess phosphorus nutritional knowledge of hemodialysis patients, nephrologists and renal nurses and seek potential interventions to improve patients’ adherence to phosphorus and overall nutritional guidelines. Methods: This cross-sectional observational study was conducted on sixty eight hemodialysis patients, 19 renal nurses and 11 nephrologists who were recruited from 3 hemodialysis units in Greece. Phosphorus nutritional knowledge of the participants was assessed by a 25-item item questionnaire (CKDKAT–N) which included 15 questions on phosphorus and 10 questions on protein, sodium, and potassium knowledge. Results: Nephrologists had higher CKDKAT–N total (19.1 ± 3.6 vs 14.1 ± 2.8 and 13.2 ± 2.8, P < 0.01) and phosphorus knowledge scores (10.6 ± 2.7 vs 7.6 ± 2.2 and 7.3 ± 2.0, P < 0.01) compared to renal nurses and patients respectively. There were no differences in total and phosphorus knowledge scores between nurses and patients. Patients and nurses answered correctly significantly less questions regarding phosphorus compared with the rest of the questions (P < 0.01) while no such difference was found in nephrologists. Serum phosphorus was positively correlated with phosphorus knowledge score (r = 0.31, P = 0.02), and negatively correlated with patient age (r = −0.34, P < 0.05). None of the patients, 11% of the nurses and 27% of the nephrologists answered correctly all three questions regarding P, K and Na dietary recommendations (P < 0.01). Conclusions: The study confirms that hemodialysis patients have low renal nutrition knowledge while higher nutritional phosphorus knowledge does not lead to lower serum phosphorus values. Alarmingly, renal nurses have been found to have a similar level of knowledge with hemodialysis patients, something that needs to be taken into account when training the new dialysis staff. Nephrologists have superior knowledge; however they are still lacking essential nutritional knowledge that could affect patients' and nurses’ overall understanding. Continuing education on nutrition of nephrologists and renal nurses could improve nutrition care of hemodialysis patients. © 2019 European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism

In 2016, the International Society of Peritoneal Dialysis (ISPD) published guidelines that focus on the importance of both prevention and treatment of peritonitis. For once more, the need for annual reporting of peritonitis rates and recording of peritonitis and exit-site infections, isolated microorganism and antimicrobial susceptibilities as a central component of a quality improvement program is highlighted. Data on new antibiotic regimens, techniques for microorganism isolation and peritoneal dialysis solutions are included. Training of both peritoneal dialysis nurses and patients seems to be crucial, while the modifiable risk factors for peritonitis seem to be of great interest. In this article, we record the changes in the last ISPD (2016) guidelines compared to the previous ones published in 2010. © 2017, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht.

Hyperkalemia is a relative common and sometimes life threatening electorlyte disorder. Although its symptomatic treatment is relatively easy, since precise therapeutic algorithms are available, its differential diagnosis is more complicated. The present review aims to unfold the differential diagnosis of hypekalemia using a pathophysiological, albeit clinically useful, approach. The basic elements of potassium homeostasis are provided, the causes of hyperkalemia are categorized and analysed and finally the required for the diferrential diagnosis laboratory tests are mentioned.

Most episodes of peritoneal dialysis (PD)-related peritonitis could be attributed to a single organism, but in almost 10% of peritonitis episodes multiple organisms are identified. Polymicrobial peritonitis is often related to intra-abdominal pathology, and the prognosis may be poor. Aeromonas spp. have rarely been identified as the causative pathogen in PD-related peritonitis, and a very small number of cases has been reported in the literature. These rod-shaped, gram-negative microorganisms have been isolated from wastewater drainage systems, food, vegetables, and soil. Herein we report a case of polymicrobial peritonitis in a continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) patient with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), due to a combination of Streptococcus viridans and Aeromonas hydrophila infection. The patient was involved in gardening and was not compliant with her technique protocol. She did not wear a mask and omitted thorough hand washing. The patient was treated with i.p. vancomycin and ceftazidime and peritonitis was resolved. The patient's technique was reassessed, and she was retrained by our PD nurses.

Urate through Nacht Domain, Leucine-Rich Repeat, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NALP3) dependent caspase-1 activation stimulates macrophages to secrete inteleukin-1β (IL-1β). Purinergic receptor P2X7 plays a role in the urate induced NALP3 activation. Urate also enhances adaptive immunity indirectly through its effect on antigen presenting cells. In this study, the direct effect of urate on primary human lymphocytes was evaluated.Lymphocytes were cultured with or without monosodium urate crystals in the presence or not of a P2X7 inhibitor. Caspase-1 activity was assessed colorimetrically in cell lysates and IL-1β was measured in supernatants with ELISA. Whole lymphocyte viability and proliferation, as well as T-cell proliferation were assessed by means of 2,3-bis-(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium-5-carboxanilide (XTT) assay and of flow cytometry respectively.Urate induced caspase-1 activation and IL-1β release by lymphocytes. It also induced proliferation of whole lymphocytes and T-cells as well. P2X7 inhibitor abrogated lymphocyte proliferation.Urate, a well defined danger signal, stimulates directly human lymphocytes in a P2X7 dependent way. The subsequent IL-1β secretion could enhance inflammation, whereas expansion of lymphocyte clones could facilitate a subsequent adaptive immune response.

Hemodialysis (HD) patients are particularly predisposed to infections. It seems that the HD procedure per se as well as disturbances in both innate and adaptive immunity significantly contribute to this susceptibility. Infections are the major cause of morbidity and the second cause of death following cardiovascular events in HD patients. Episodes of bacteremia and pneumonia account for the majority of severe infections in this population. In addition to these bacterial infections another common problem in HD units is the blood transmitted viral infections, particularly infections caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus and Human immunodeficiency virus. A number of safety concerns exist for limiting the spread of these viral infections among HD patients and the staff of the unit. The aim of the present review is to present in a concise albeit practical form the difficult aspect of infections in HD. For practical reasons the review is separated in two parts. The previous first part covered bacteremia and respiratory infections, while the present second part covers blood transmitted viral infections.

Background and the purpose of the study Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) suppresses adaptive immune response. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the IDO inhibitor namely 1-methyl-DL-tryptophan (DL-1-MT) on antibody production after vaccination with hepatitis B surface (HBs) antigen. Methods Four groups of BALB/c mice were immunized with a HBs antigen vaccine. In the first group the vaccine had no DL-1-MT, whereas in the other three groups the vaccine contained 1 mg, 10 mg and 20 mg DL-1-MT. Blood samples were collected 5 weeks post-vaccination and anti-HBs antibodies in the serum were measured by ELISA. Results Compared to the three groups of mice that were immunized with the vaccines containing DL-1-MT, serum anti-HBs level was much higher in the mice that were immunized with the vaccine with out DL-1-MT. Conclusions Inhibition of IDO at the time of vaccination decreased humoral immune response to HBs antigen vaccine. The idea that IDO activity is simply immunosuppressive may need to be re-evaluated.

Besides extracellular matrix production, fibroblasts are able to produce various cytokines. Their ubiquitous position makes fibroblasts appropriate cells for sensing various noxious stimuli and for attracting immune cells in the affected area. In the present study the effect of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and cobalt chloride (CoCl(2)) on the above fibroblasts functions were evaluated in primary human skin fibroblasts cultures. Collagen, matrix metalloproteinase-1, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1, transforming growth factor-β1, interleukin-8 (IL-8) and macrophage chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) were measured in fibroblasts culture supernatants. Fibroblasts proliferation and viability were assessed as well. Hypoxia inducible factor-1α and the phosphorylated p65 portion of NF-κB were assessed in fibroblasts protein extracts. LPS and CoCl(2) had a minor effect on fibrosis related factors in human primary fibroblasts, possibly due to the absence of interplay with other cell types in the used experimental system. On the contrary both LPS and CoCl(2) increased significantly IL-8. LPS also increased considerably MCP-1, but CoCl(2) decreased it. Thus LPS and CoCl(2) induce a sentinel, nevertheless not identical, phenotype in primary human fibroblasts. The last disparity could result in different body response to infectious or hypoxic noxious stimuli.

Hemodialysis (HD) patients are particularly predisposed to infections. It seems that the HD procedure per se as well as disturbances in both innate and adaptive immunity significantly contribute to this susceptibility. Infections are the major cause of morbidity and the second cause of death following cardiovascular events in HD patients. Episodes of bacteremia and pneumonia account for the majority of severe infections in this population. In addition to these bacterial infections another common problem in HD units is the blood transmitted viral infections, particularly infections caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus and Human immunodeficiency virus. A number of safety concerns exist for limiting the spread of these viral infections among HD patients and the staff of the unit. The aim of the present review is to present in a concise albeit practical form the difficult aspect of infections in HD. For practical reasons the review is separated in two parts. The present first part covers bacteremia and respiratory infections, while the second part will cover blood transmitted viral infections.