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A commingled waste rock and tailings test pile and a waste rock test pile were evaluated to determine saturated hydraulic conductivity and destructively sampled to measure dry density. The commingled test pile contained a mixture of filtered tailings and waste rock blended to isolate waste rock particles as inclusions within the tailings matrix. Test piles were constructed in the shape of truncated 5 m high pyramids with 25 m base sides and flat 5 m × 5 m top surfaces, and instrumented to monitor water content (and additional geochemical indicator parameters) within the test pile and seepage from the base of the pile. Piles were decommissioned after 26 months of operation. Saturated hydraulic conductivities were measured using sealed double-ring infiltrometers (2.4 m square outer ring and 1 m square inner ring). Tensiometers and embedded water content sensors were used to measure progression of the wetting front, and the final location of the wetting front in the commingled test pile was directly measured during decommissioning. Field-measured saturated hydraulic conductivities were compared to laboratory-measured results intended to simulate the test piles. Despite having a lower average density, the commingled waste rock and tailings had a hydraulic conductivity approximately 2.5 times lower than the waste rock.

La espectrometría de movilidad iónica (IMS) es una técnica analítica que se basa en la separación de iones gaseosos bajo la influencia de un campo eléctrico a través de una atmósfera de gas inerte a presión atmosférica. En los últimos años, el interés por el uso de esta técnica para el análisis de volátiles de muestras agroalimentarias se ha incrementado paralelamente al interés de los consumidores por conocer el origen y la calidad de los productos alimenticios que adquieren. En este contexto, el sector del jamón ibérico, que es uno de los productos cárnicos con mayor valor en el mercado, sigue en busca de procedimientos para asegurar de manera objetiva la calidad a nivel de régimen de alimentación y pureza racial de los cerdos, que afectan directamente a la calidad organoléptica del jamón. Además, se requiere que toda la cadena comercial pueda verificar la categoría de las piezas independientemente del sistema de trazabilidad de los productores, y que a la vez se pueda garantizar la ausencia de defectos organolépticos o de calidad como el de cala. Debido a que el jamón de bellota 100% ibérico procede de cerdos de pura raza engordados en montanera, pastoreando bellotas y hierba en la dehesa, su producción es más reducida y de un mayor coste, lo que se ve reflejado en su precio de mercado. Por tanto, es obvio que exista una demanda de técnicas instrumentales que sirvan para analizar y diferenciar la calidad del jamón ibérico en laboratorios de rutina a partir de muestras que impliquen el menor daño posible a las piezas, dando seguridad a las empresas implicadas en la cadena de producción y distribución y a los organismos de inspección sobre su calidad y así diferenciar los productos más valiosos. Por ello, la principal motivación de esta Tesis Doctoral fue explorar el potencial de la cromatografía de gases - espectrometría de movilidad iónica (GC-IMS) y otras técnicas instrumentales para desarrollar una metodología objetiva de análisis del jamón que permita discriminar muestras según el régimen de alimentación y la pureza racial del cerdo y según la presencia o no de defectos en las piezas, concretamente de la podredumbre denominada cala. Para lograr este objetivo, se han desarrollado metodologías para tomar decisiones rápidas basadas en muestreos destructivos y no destructivos y en el análisis con GC-IMS, cromatografía de gases - espectrometría de masas (GC-MS) y espectroscopía Raman, con el jamón de bellota 100% ibérico como principal producto estudiado, para asegurar su calidad antes de su salida al mercado y así ayudar a justificar su precio de manera objetiva. Los resultados más relevantes derivados del trabajo experimental realizado en esta Tesis Doctoral se han publicado en seis artículos científicos. En cinco de ellos se usa la GC-IMS para asegurar la calidad del jamón ibérico curado. El resumen gráfico adjunto (Figura 1) muestra los objetivos específicos de cada trabajo y la metodología seguida. A su vez, estos objetivos están descritos en cada uno de los seis bloques en los que se subdivide esta Tesis. El bloque 1 tiene tres capítulos dedicados a: los principales retos analíticos actuales relacionados con el jamón ibérico (capítulo 1.1), las técnicas analíticas que ya han sido empleadas para abordar dichos retos (capítulo 1.2) y a la IMS (capítulo 1.3). El bloque 2 es una descripción detallada de los distintos equipos y materiales empleados en la presente Tesis Doctoral. El bloque 3 aborda el uso de la espectroscopía Raman como técnica de screening en un estudio interlaboratorio para la discriminación de loncheado de jamón ibérico según el régimen de alimentación del cerdo. El bloque 4 incluye tres capítulos dedicados al desarrollo de métodos de confirmación basados en GC-IMS para la clasificación de jamón ibérico por régimen de alimentación y pureza racial y para la detección de defectos. Así, el capítulo 4.1 desarrolla una metodología basada en la GC-IMS para la determinación de volátiles en jamón ibérico loncheado con los que diferenciar el régimen de alimentación del cerdo (bellota o pienso). El capítulo 4.2 describe el desarrollo de una metodología no-destructiva basada en el análisis de agujas impregnadas de grasa con GC-IMS para la determinación de volátiles en piezas intactas de jamón ibérico, con el objetivo de diferenciar el régimen de alimentación del cerdo (bellota o pienso) y su pureza racial. El capítulo 4.3 evalúa dos métodos analíticos que usan la GC-IMS o la GC-MS para la discriminación de jamón ibérico con defecto a través de su perfil volátil con un muestreo no destructivo para la pieza. El bloque 5 incluye dos capítulos dedicados a la transferencia de las metodologías de confirmación desarrolladas en el bloque anterior al ámbito industrial y/o a laboratorios de rutina. En este bloque, el capítulo 5.1 describe una metodología de control de calidad de los análisis realizados con GC-IMS para demostrar la viabilidad de esta técnica para el análisis rutinario de una gran cantidad de muestras en condiciones reales de laboratorio. A su vez, el capítulo 5.2 resume una serie de recomendaciones para calibrar y validar modelos quimiométricos robustos con datos obtenidos con GC-IMS de modo que sirvan como herramienta para predecir la categoría de muestras de alimentos, como el jamón ibérico. Por último, el bloque 6 expone la discusión de los resultados obtenidos en la presente Tesis Doctoral. Como anexo final se incluye un listado de la producción científica conseguida. Ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) is an analytical technique based on the separation of gaseous ions under the influence of an electric field through an inert gas atmosphere. In recent years, interest in the use of this technique for the analysis of volatiles in agri-food samples has increased in parallel with the interest of consumers in knowing the origin and quality of the food products they buy. In this context, the Iberian ham sector continues to search for procedures to objectively ensure the quality of its products at the level of feeding regime and racial purity of the pigs, which directly affect the organoleptic quality of the ham. In addition, the entire commercial chain must be able to verify the category of the pieces independently of the traceability system implemented by the producers, and at the same time guarantee the absence of organoleptic defects such as "cala". As acorn-fed 100% Iberian ham comes from purebred pigs fattened in an open range, grazing on acorns and natural pastures, its production is smaller and involves a higher cost, which is reflected in its market price; it is a product of differentiated quality linked to the fattening of Iberian pigs in the dehesa. Therefore, it is obvious that there is a demand for instrumental techniques to analyze Iberian ham in routine laboratories from samples that involve the least possible damage to the pieces, responding to companies and inspection bodies about their quality and thus differentiate the most valuable products. Therefore, the main motivation of this doctoral thesis was to explore the potential of gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (GC-IMS) and other instrumental techniques to develop an objective methodology for analyzing ham that would make it possible to discriminate samples according to the feeding regime and racial purity of the pig and according to the presence or absence of defects in the pieces, specifically the spoilage known as “cala”. To achieve this objective, methodologies have been developed to make rapid decisions based on destructive and non-destructive sampling and analysis with GC-IMS, gas chromatographymass spectrometry (GC-MS) and Raman spectroscopy; with acorn-fed Iberian ham as the main product to be studied, to ensure its quality before it goes on the market and thus help to justify its price objectively. The most relevant results derived from the experimental work carried out in this doctoral thesis have been published in six scientific articles. Five of them use GC-IMS to ensure the quality of cured Iberian ham. The attached graphical summary (Figure 1) shows the specific objectives of each paper and the methodology followed to achieve them. In turn, these objectives are described in the chapters corresponding to each block of the six into which this thesis is subdivided, each with different chapters. Block 1 has three chapters dedicated to: the main current analytical challenges related to Iberian ham (chapter 1.1), the analytical techniques that have already been used to address these challenges (chapter 1.2) and IMS (chapter 1.3). Block 2 is a detailed description of the different equipment and materials used in this thesis (chapter 2.1). Block 3 deals with the use of Raman spectroscopy as a screening technique in an interlaboratory study for the discrimination of sliced Iberian ham according to the feeding regime of the pig (chapter 3.1). Block 4 includes three chapters dedicated to the development of confirmation methods based on GC-IMS for the classification of Iberian ham by feeding regime and racial purity and for the detection of defects. Chapter 4.1 develops a methodology based on GC-IMS for the determination of volatiles in sliced Iberian ham to differentiate the product based on the pig's feeding regime (acorn or feed). Chapter 4.2 describes the development of a non-destructive methodology based on the analysis of fat impregnated needles with GC-IMS for the determination of volatiles in intact pieces of Iberian ham, with the aim of differentiating the product on the basis of the pig's feeding regime (acorn or feed) and its racial purity. Chapter 4.3 evaluates two analytical methods that use GC-IMS or GC-MS to discriminate defective Iberian ham through its volatile profile with non-destructive sampling for the piece. Block 5 includes two chapters dedicated to transferring the confirmation methodologies developed in the previous block to the industrial setting and/or routine laboratories. In this block, chapter 5.1 describes a methodology for quality control of the analyses performed with GC-IMS to demonstrate the feasibility of this technique for the routine analysis of a large number of samples under real laboratory conditions. Chapter 5.2 summarizes a series of recommendations for calibrating and validating robust chemometric models with GC-IMS data to serve as a tool for predicting the category of agrifood samples, such as Iberian ham. Finally, section 6 presents the discussion of the results obtained in this doctoral thesis. A list of the scientific production achieved is included as a final appendix.

International audience

Publisher's version (útgefin grein), With the advent of ancient DNA, as well as other methods such as isotope analysis, destructive sampling of archaeofaunal remains has increased much faster than the effort to collect and curate them. While there has been considerable discussion regarding the ethics of destructive sampling and analysis of human remains, this dialogue has not extended to archaeofaunal material. Here we address this gap and discuss the ethical challenges surrounding destructive sampling of materials from archaeofaunal collections. We suggest ways of mitigating the negative aspects of destructive sampling and present step-by-step guidelines aimed at relevant stakeholders, including scientists, holding institutions and scientific journals. Our suggestions are in most cases easily implemented without significant increases in project costs, but with clear long-term benefits inthe preservation and use of zooarchaeologicalmaterial., his work was supported by the Icelandic Research Fund grant no. 162783-051, Finnish Academy grant no. SA286499, the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie SkłodowskaCurie grant agreement no. 749226 and Estonian Research Council grant nos. PRG29 and IUT 20-7.

This study aimed to determine the wood density using destructive and non-destructive sampling methods in a eucalypt hybrid clonal and determine the best point for the non-destructive sampling of the tree. A 5,6-year-oldEucalyptus urophylla x Eucalyptus grandis hybrid clone, from an energetic forest, was used, planted in the municipal district of Martinho Campos, MG, Brazil. The trees were sampled by three methods of destructive sampling. The traditional method (0%, 25%, 50%,75% and 100% of the commercial height Hc); alternative method (2%, 10%, 30% and 70% Hc) and via a meter by meter method starting from a height of 1,30 m from the soil (DBH). Three non-destructive sampling methods were also appraised: Resistograph®, Pilodyn® and 22 mm diameter cores at a DBH. The use of the Resistograph® at the 1,10 m or 1,50 m points and the Pilodyn® at 1,50m of height from the soil results the best correlations with the basic density determined by the three destructive sampling methods considered.

Product blood-level in vivo bioequivalence (BE) studies typically involve complete blood concentration-time profiles generated for each subject. Accordingly, each subject provides the estimates of the rate and extent of drug absorption. However, repeated blood draws are not always feasible for studies using small animals because of handling or blood volume (e.g., fish or in toxicokinetic studies when only single samples can be taken per animal). Although several proposals have been published for comparing the product extent of absorption, the issue of comparative absorption rates remains unresolved. In this paper, we propose to apply the Bailer-Satterthwaite-Fieller confidence interval for estimating the ratio of partial area under the curve in studies that use a destructive sampling design (one blood sample per subject). To characterize the behavior of this alternative approach, we examine the impact of partial area cutoff time, blood sampling schedule, and the number of subjects included at each sampling time. Using simulated situations reflective of the issues encountered with immediate-release veterinary formulations, we compare BE conclusions resulting from the use of this approach with simulated results that assuming repeated blood draws from each study subject.

Aims: The improvement of nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of crops allows crop nitrogen (N) demands to be met while reducing N supply, and so reducing excess N which has potential negative environmental implications. NUE is often determined destructively at the end of crop growth-cycles without considering temporal variability. Here we present a methodological study which optimises the determination of NUE throughout the sugarcane growth-cycle using minimally destructive methods, and suggest the use of these methods for non-destructive NUE determination over the growth-cycle of other giant C4 crops. Methods and results: The determination of the NUE relied on the optimisation of three methods: the estimation of aboveground biomass, N content and N derived from fertiliser (NdfF). First, the ability of different allometric relationships to estimate sugarcane biomass was investigated by selecting a relationship based on height and diameter to estimate aboveground biomass along the crop growth-cycle. Secondly, we assessed the minimum number of harvested sugarcane required to construct a dilution curve to predict N content from biomass and found that a sampling of 5 sugarcane at 3 dates was sufficient to represent aboveground N content over the growth-cycle. Finally, the ability of 15N content of individual leaves to represent the NdfF in 15N-fertilised cane was tested. The first and second leaf below the top visible dewlap were the most representative. Based on a variance analysis, we assessed the level of influence of each method on the NUE calculation. Crop age accounted for 54% of the variance of NUE, the choice of 15N leaf 13%, with the choice of model to estimate biomass and the number of plants harvested for the N dilution curve, each accounting for less than 2% over the four sampling dates. Conclusions: This study highlighted the importance of evaluating NUE not only at the point of harvest. We propose, therefore, a set of methods to study NUE throughout the sugarcane growth-cycle by using minimally destructive sampling.

Evaluation of dry-cured Iberian ham quality is carried out by means of the sense of smell of experts and a percentage of these hams are discarded due to odour defects. However, hams in cellars cannot be altered by sampling because they would be devaluated, which makes instrumental analysis difficult. Thus, the aim of this work is to assess the potential of headspace gas chromatography coupled to ion mobility spectrometry (HS-GC-IMS) or mass spectrometry (HS-GC-MS) to discriminate defective Iberian hams using a non-destructive sampling. Fifty hams from pigs fed with acorns were sampled in a real industry setting and were classified according to their condition (defective or non-defective). Validated classification rates of 80% and 100% using partial least squares discriminant analysis were obtained with HS-GC-IMS and HS-GC-MS, respectively, demonstrating the potential of the instrumental methods tested, which can be seen as complementary to the traditional olfactory technique. Furthermore, the volatile profile of spoiled Iberian hams was also determined; on average, spoiled pieces showed higher values of nonanal and decanal. Besides that, formic acid was only detected in spoiled pieces. These results might lead to an easier discrimination of spoilage to guarantee the quality of Iberian hams on the market. FEDER Andalucía 2014–2020 [project reference 1261925-R, 2018] España Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación Doctorado Industrial programme [grant reference DI-17-09645, 2017]

Continuous field leaf area index ( LAI ) measurement has become increasingly important for the validation of remote sensing LAI products. A seasonal field campaign was carried out to take continuous LAI measurements over paddy rice fields in NE China in 2012. Three indirect optical methods, LAI -2200, digital hemispherical photography (DHP), and AccuPAR, were compared with a destructive sampling method conducted concurrently. Corrections for the clumping effect were applied to the effective plant area indices (PAI(eff)) estimated from the indirect optical measurements. Both LAI -2200 and DHP produce consistent PAI(eff) estimates over the season (R-2 = 0.76, RMSE = 0.97). The clumping index (CI) values obtained from DHP generally decrease with plant growth and range between 0.63 and 0.74 during the peak growing period from day of year (DOY) 191-230. The CI values retrieved from DHP photos generally decrease with increasing view angles. The optical PAI and LAI values estimated from LAI -2200 and DHP correspond very well with the destructive values before DOY 230 (R-2 = 0.75, RMSE = 1.15 for PAI and R-2=0.78, RMSE = 0.74 for LAI ), and the relative errors are less than 10% and 5%, respectively, for the two instruments. Omitting ring 5 for LAI -2200 generates very accurate PAI and LAI estimations during the peak season. Nevertheless, AccuPAR underestimates the PAI(eff), PAI, and LAI values obtained from other methods (up to 30%). After DOY 231, the capability to detect PAI decreases significantly for both destructive and optical methods due to the leaf senescence and the DHP classification difficulty. In general, rice PAI could be accurately estimated with LAI -2200 and DHP before senescence if the clumping effect could be properly taken into account. The seasonal continuous LAI measurements obtained from this study are valuable for the validation of remote sensing LAI products. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The study of volatile compounds obtained by gas chromatography (GC) coupled to mass spectrometry (MS) or ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) may be very useful to protect food quality, especially when using a non-destructive sampling method. In this work, the authentication of the highly appreciated dry-cured Iberian ham by those techniques was studied and compared. The results obtained show the suitability of a non-destructive sampling method coupled to headspace sampling (HS)-GC-IMS or HS-GC-MS to determine volatile markers in the feeding Iberian pig regime. Although both methods were suitable to differentiate the ham categories, HS-GC-IMS was more sensitive detecting a higher number of compounds than HS-GC-MS, which provided accurate qualitative results. The results of principal component analysis showed that ethanol, 2-propanol and 3-methylbutanol, identified by HS-GC-IMS, and 3-methylbutanal and heptane, identified by HS-GC-MS, could be considered potential markers to identify ham from different feeding regimes.

Evaluation of dry-cured Iberian ham quality is carried out by means of the sense of smell of experts and a percentage of these hams are discarded due to odour defects. However, hams in cellars cannot be altered by sampling because they would be devaluated, which makes instrumental analysis difficult. Thus, the aim of this work is to assess the potential of headspace gas chromatography coupled to ion mobility spectrometry (HS-GC-IMS) or mass spectrometry (HS-GC-MS) to discriminate defective Iberian hams using a non-destructive sampling. Fifty hams from pigs fed with acorns were sampled in a real industry setting and were classified according to their condition (defective or non-defective). Validated classification rates of 80% and 100% using partial least squares discriminant analysis were obtained with HS-GC-IMS and HS-GC-MS, respectively, demonstrating the potential of the instrumental methods tested, which can be seen as complementary to the traditional olfactory technique. Furthermore, the volatile profile of spoiled Iberian hams was also determined; on average, spoiled pieces showed higher values of nonanal and decanal. Besides that, formic acid was only detected in spoiled pieces. These results might lead to an easier discrimination of spoilage to guarantee the quality of Iberian hams on the market.

Time series data on cyclic vole populations in 1971‐1999 in northern Sweden show a longterm decline in numbers from the early 1970s to the late 1990s. We tested the destructive sampling hypothesis predicting that previously unsampled (new) plots in remote areas would yield higher density indices than the density level of permanent plots in the early 1970s. In autumn 1999 we sampled both permanent (treatment) plots and new (control) plots. Density was not higher on new than on permanent sampling plots for any of the predominant vole species, Clethrionomys glareolus, C. rufocanus, and Microtus agrestis. It appears unlikely that destructive sampling has caused the observed decline in vole numbers.

Populations of soil-living algae serve as important proxies for the level of metal toxicity in contaminated soils, therefore, there is a need for efficient bioassays to effectively monitor these populations. This study evaluated two approaches for the extraction of algal cells from soil for further analysis. One method employed direct solvent extraction of chlorophyll from the algae. A second method utilized indirect isolation of algal cells from culture media incubated for 24 h. The utility of both methods was compared by estimating the relative viability of Chlorococcum infusionum and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii grown in the presence of varying concentrations of Ni. The biomass of C. infusionum and C. reinhardtii decreased as a result of both extraction approaches. The direct extraction of algal chlorophyll with ethanol proved to be the simpler and more direct procedure; however, the process destroyed the cells and, therefore, only allowed for the measurement of a single endpoint. The indirect culture medium extraction was at least as sensitive as the direct extraction method in the measurement of chlorophyll, but allowed for the analysis of multiple endpoints. The culture medium method was used to characterize the biomass, photosynthetic activity, cell size, cell granularity, cell membrane permeability, and esterase activity of C. infusionum and C. reinhardtii to assess cell viability of cultures grown in increasing concentrations of Ni. Factors were measured by flow cytometry. Photosynthetic activity was inhibited, and cell size, membrane permeability, and esterase activity of C. reinhardtii were all affected when exposed to Ni-treated soil. This study demonstrated that the culture medium extraction method is preferable; allows for the analysis of multiple endpoints, such as photosynthetic and flow cytometric analyses of soil algae; has a shorter extraction period (24 h); and can, therefore, be used as an efficient and effectively screening method for soil toxicity.

In the present study, it was attempted to quantify sea lice grazing in lumpfish by using a recently published qPCR assay. This method utilizes a small aliquot (10 μL) of the stomach fluid of the lumpfish which can be collected using a sterile, 85 mm long pipette tip. We tested if repetitive sampling of stomach fluid influenced growth and survival in the sampled fish. The test lumpfish were sampled for stomach fluid at 6–16 days intervals for 95 days. No mortalities were recorded during the test period and there were no significant differences in growth compared to the control group. Quantification using the qPCR method was tested by two approaches; one with lumpfish that had grazed on sea lice ad libitum and the other with lumpfish that had been intubated with sea lice. The sea lice-specific qPCR assay had an inversely related relationship with the number of eaten lice, especially from stomach samples of lumpfish that naturally fed on sea lice as opposed to intubated fish. acceptedVersion

Accurate discrimination of two morphologically similar species of Patella limpets has been facilitated by using qPCR amplification of species-specific mitochondrial genomic regions. Cost-effective and non-destructive sampling is achieved using a mucus swab and simple sample lysis and dilution to create a PCR template. Results show 100% concurrence with dissection and microscopic analysis, and the technique has been employed successfully in field studies. The use of highly sensitive DNA barcoding techniques such as this hold great potential for improving previously challenging field assessments of species abundance.

Iberian cured ham from purebred pigs fattened on grazing acorns is a highly appreciated product. There are several analytical methods to avoid its labelling fraud; however, these require opening the ham. The aim of this work is testing a non-destructive sampling method which does not spoil the physical integrity of the ham. It consists of a puncture with a needle imitating a traditional olfactory system. After removing the needle impregnated with fat, its volatiles are analyzed with a Gas Chromatography (GC) coupled to Ion Mobility Spectrometry (IMS). The potential of this methodology was studied analyzing 156 Iberian hams from pigs under two different feeding regimes (acorns versus feed) and from different breed (Iberian versus Duroc crossed). Intensity of GC-IMS plot features was extracted and chemometric differentiation models were obtained; one for feeding regime and another for breed, providing validated classification rates of 91.7% and 100%, respectively. In addition, 29 features used for construction of both models were tentatively identified using chemical standards. The suitability of the method for quality control analysis was characterized by means of a precision study. As a conclusion, GC-IMS becomes a useful tool to guarantee dry-cured Iberian ham authenticity and detect labelling fraud.

International audience; The estimation and monitoring of the huge amount of carbon contained in tropical forests, and specifically in the above-ground biomass (AGB) of trees, is needed for the successful implementation of climate change mitigation strategies. Its accuracy depends on the availability of reliable allometric equations to convert forest inventory data into AGB estimates. In this study, we tested whether central African forests are really different from other tropical forests with respect to biomass allometry, and further examined the regional variation in tropical tree allometry across the Congo basin forests. Following the same standardized protocol, trees were destructively sampled for AGB in six sites representative of terra firme forests. We fitted regional and local allometric models, including tree diameter, wood specific gravity, tree height, and crown radius in the AGB predictors. We also evaluated the AGB predictions at the tree level across the six sites of our new models and of existing allometric models, including the pantropical equations developed by Chave et al. (2014, 2005) and the local equations developed by Ngomanda et al. (2014) in Gabon. With a total of 845 tropical trees belonging to 55 African species and covering a large range of diameters (up to 200 cm), the original data presented here can be considered as the largest ever destructive sampling for a tropical region. Regional allometric models were established and including tree height and crown radius had a small but significant effect on AGB predictions. In contrast to our expectations, tree height and crown radius did not explain much between-site variation. Examining the performance of general models (pantropical or regional) versus local models (site-specific), we found little advantage of using local equations. Earlier pantropical equations developed for moist forests were found to provide reasonable predictions of tree AGB in most sites, though the wettest sites, i.e., evergreen forests in Equatorial Guinea and, to a lesser extent in Gabon, tended to show a wet forest allometry. For the Congo basin forests, except in Equatorial Guinea where local models might be preferred, we recommend using our regional models, and otherwise the most recent pantropical models, that were validated here. These results constitute a critical step for the estimation and monitoring of biomass/carbon stocks contained in the second largest contiguous block of tropical forests worldwide, and the successful implementation of climate change mitigation strategies, such as REDD+.

This paper presents a standardized protocol for the non-lethal capture of fishes, sampling of stomach contents and quantification of seed dispersal efficiency by frugivorous fishes. Neotropical pacu Piaractus mesopotamicus individuals were collected with fruit-baited hooks. The diets of 110 fish were sampled using a lavage method, which retrieved >90% of stomach contents of both juveniles and adults and allowed individuals to recover within 5 min of treatment. The proportional volume of six food categories was similar for stomachs and whole digestive tracts retrieved by dissection. Fruit pulp was proportionally lower in the stomach. The abundance and species richness of intact seeds increased with fish size independent of whether only stomachs or whole digestive tracts were analysed. The analysis of stomach contents accounted for 62·5% of the total species richness of seeds dispersed by P. mesopotamicus and 96% of common seeds (seed species retrieved from more than one fish). Germination trials revealed that seed viability was similar for seeds collected from the stomach via lavage and seeds that passed through the entire digestive tract. Therefore, stomach contents provide an unbiased representation of the dietary patterns and seed dispersal of frugivorous fishes.

Despite legislation to protect natural sites, rock outcrops are being damaged in the name of science. Scientists, funders and publishers must push forward a stronger code of ethics.

This paper proposes a simple procedure for selecting sampling time points and sample allocation which reduce the mean square error or area under the curve (AUC) approximated by the trapezoidal approximation. It can generate desirable time points and allocation through an iterative scheme. The methodology is applicable to AUC estimation as well as other functional forms of serial plasma concentrations. The appropriate application of this procedure can lead to more efficient pharmacokinetic study designs.

Where microbes colonizing skin surface may help maintain organism homeostasis, those that invade living skin layers cause disease. In bats, white-nose syndrome is a fungal skin infection that affects animals during hibernation and may lead to mortality in severe cases. Here, we inferred the amount of fungus that had invaded skin tissue of diseased animals. We used simulations to estimate the unobserved disease severity in a non-lethal wing punch biopsy and to relate the simulated pathology to the measured fungal load in paired biopsies. We found that a single white-nose syndrome skin lesion packed with spores and hyphae of the causative agent, Pseudogymnoascus destructans, contains 48.93 pg of the pathogen DNA, which amounts to about 1560 P. destructans genomes in one skin lesion. Relating the information to the known UV fluorescence in Nearctic and Palearctic bats shows that Nearctic bats carry about 1.7 μg of fungal DNA per cm2, whereas Palearctic bats have 0.04 μg cm−2 of P. destructans DNA. With the information on the fungal load that had invaded the host skin, the researchers can now calculate disease severity as a function of invasive fungal growth using non-destructive UV light transillumination of each bat □s wing membranes. Our results will enable and promote thorough disease severity assessment in protected bat species without the need for extensive animal and laboratory labor sacrifices.

When designing experiments, environmental scientists face the challenge of how to accurately represent nature. The idea of sampling patterns and strategies truly reflecting research variables is intrinsic to scientific pursuits. This is particularly true in environmental science due to the complex heterogeneity present in nature. It is vitally important in most studies for researchers to account for natural variations in soil, air, water, and vegetation that can change in space and time. Many strategies focus on the use of strategically placed transects or plot-based sampling campaigns designed to include as many aspects of a particular variable as possible within a study area. Determining how many samples must be taken, whether they are of soil, plant matter, water, etc., depends entirely on the balance of time, effort, and cost while in the field. As a rule of thumb, the more samples that can be gathered correctly, the more trustworthy eventual results will be. Unfortunately, environmental sampling can be time-consuming and expensive depending on its location or the procedures for its procurement. This is one of the reasons why the use of satellite-based remote sensing, computer modeling, and proximal sensing has gained popularity within the scientific community in recent decades. However, the heterogeneity and scale of the environment again make large spatial-scale research difficult and often require in situ validation campaigns to ensure data quality. This is one of the main advantages of the use of the CRNS, due to the significant spatial and temporal variations soil moisture can exhibit.

Nitrogen (N) is a fundamental nutrient in agroecosystems, but has considerable negative environmental impact when used in excess. Meeting N demand while reducing excess N can be achieved by improvements in N use efficiency (NUE) of a crop agroecosystem. This is generally determined destructively (i.e. by cutting the cane) at the end of the crop cycle during harvest, where NUE is typically higher than during initial phases of crop development. Here we present the findings of a methodological study that aimed at developing non- destructive estimations of NUE throughout the crop cycle. We investigated the ability of allometric relationships to estimate sugarcane biomass by testing different functions and measurable traits (cane height and basal diameter) on six sampling dates. A dilution curve was constructed to predict N content of the sugarcane biomass by harvesting 20 stalks of cane on five separate dates. The number of harvested stalks was then rationalised to reduce the amount of harvested cane without affecting the ability of the curve to predict N content. As N derived from fertiliser (Ndff) can be determined from a representative leaf using an 15N-labelling approach, 15N content of each leaf on three stalks of cane was determined on four sampling dates. This enabled identification of the most representative leaf for determining 15N content of the biomass. The percentage difference and the associated error between sugarcane biomass predicted by allometric models and 2.5m harvested plots varied depending on the combinations of measurable traits used for the allometric relationships. The values for cane: 1) height on each date; 2) height x diameter on each date; and 3) height x diameter using a global relationship across sampling dates was 2±3 %, 2±3 % and 5±3 % respectively. In order to construct an adequate dilution curve, we determined statistically that a minimum of 5 sugarcanes needed to be sampled. The leaf with an 15N content most representative of the entire cane aboveground biomass was L+1 at 3, 8 and 11 months and L+3 at 5 months of growth (L+1 is the first leaf from the top with a visible dewlap). Allometric relationships appear to predict sugarcane biomass effectively at a plot scale. Models developed for each month may provide slightly better predictions, but a single global model across dates using cane height combined with basal diameter is best practically. The results indicated that sugarcane N concentration can be determined by non-destructive means using dilution curves based on sampling of five sugarcane stalks once a month during the cane cycle. In order to determine the Ndff, only a single leaf from the cane plant needs to be harvested rather than the entire plant. These methods make it possible to study NUE by using mostly non-destructive techniques throughout the crop cycle.

Destructive sampling schemes are the most direct and accurate methods to estimate yields in agro-ecosystem studies. However, in many situations these resource-intensive schemes are not feasible and/or sustainable. The objective of this research was to develop and compare non-destructive visual censuses and analytical methods for estimating fruit loads on Coffea arabica var. Caturra and Catuai trees using different components of yield. Fruit load data were collected in coffee farms found in the Los Santos Region of Costa Rica. Two components of yield where estimated: number of productive lateral branches per tree and fruit load per lateral branch. OLS regression was used to develop empirical models relating these components of yield with total fruit load per plant. Productive laterals at medium relative distance from the apical meristem had higher fruit loads than those found at the top or bottom of the orthotropic stem in C. arabica plants. In addition, by sampling eight to nine productive laterals per plant, the maximum observed error of the estimated fruit load per lateral was reduced by half. Regression coefficients of the empirical models relating total fruit load with yield components ranged between 0.73 and 0.92. Sampling schemes which grant equal probability of selection to productive laterals at different relative distances from the apical meristem should be chosen when estimating fruit load per lateral in commonly cultivated varieties of C. arabica plants. Furthermore, a non-destructive sampling protocol of the key components of yield provides accurate estimates of total fruit load per tree. Additional research is required to relate fruit loads with total biomass of fresh fruit and dry biomass in this perennial crop.

Understanding of the role of low molecular weight organic anions (OAs) in structuring rhizosphere microbial communities in situ is limited due to challenges associated with sampling. Improved techniques are needed for such studies. This study used in situ and destructive sampling techniques and compared two exudate extraction methods [anion exchange membrane (AEM) capturing and water extraction] from rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere samples of genetically modified (GM) and control Pinus radiata D. Don trees grown in large-scale rhizotrons for ~10 months. Metabolically active soil microbial communities were analysed using rRNA-DGGE. Recovery of eight out of 12 anions was influenced by extraction methods, and in situ sampling using AEM was shown to be the most efficient method. Only minor differences were detected in OAs in root exudates collected from the GM and control trees. Significant differences in α-Proteobacterial and Pseudomonas communities were associated with the two tree lines in the topsoil at both sampling events. Additional differences in β-Proteobacterial and fungal communities between tree lines were detected in the rhizosphere using destructive sampling. This study demonstrated that in situ sampling was superior to destructive sampling for the efficient collection of root exudates and analysis of associated rhizosphere microbial communities.

Calibration of minirhizotron data against root length density (RLD) was carried out in a field trial where three drip irrigation depths: surface (R0) and subsurface, 0.20 m (RI) and 0.40 m depth (RII) and two processing tomato cultivars: ‘Brigade’ (CI) and ‘H3044’ (CII) were imposed. For each treatment three minirhizotron tubes were located at 10, 37.5 and 75 cm of the way from one plant row to the next. Roots intersecting the minirizotrons walls were expressed as root length intensity (L a) and number of roots per unit of minirhizotron wall area (N ra). Root length density (RLD) was calculated from core samples taken for each minirhizotron tube at two locations: near the top of the minirhizotron (BI) and 15 cm apart from it, facing the minirhizotron wall opposite the plant row (BII). Minirhizotron data were regressed against RLD obtained at BI and BII and with their respective means. The results show that for all the situations studied, better correlations were obtained when RLD was regressed with L a than with N ra. Also was evident that the relationship between L a and RLD was strongly influenced by the location of soil coring. RLD was correlated with L a trough linear and cubic equations, having the last ones higher determination coefficients. For instance at 10 cm from the plant row when values from the top layer (0–40 cm) were analysed separately, L a was significantly regressed with RLD measured at BII and described by the equations: RLD = 0.5448 + 0.0071 L a (R 2 = 0.51) and RLD = 0.4823 + 0.0074L a + 8 × 10−5 La 2 — 5 × 10−7La 3 (R 2 = 0.61). Under the 40 cm depth the highest coefficients of determination for the linear and cubic equations were respectively 0.47 and 0.88, found when L a was regressed with RLD measured at BI. For minirhizotrons located at 75 cm from the plant row and for location BI it was possible to analyse jointly data from all depths with coefficients of determination of 0.45 and 0.59 for the linear and cubic equations respectively.

Above- and belowground biomass of the macrophyte Schoenoplectus maritimus was measured in Camargue (Rhone delta, southern France) using destructive and non-destructive sampling methods. Our aim was to validate whether non-destructive sampling could be used for long-term monitoring of marshes subjected to grazing by cattle and Greylag geese (Anser anser). Height and diameter explained more than 95% of the variation in shoot biomass but the allometric models differed between 2002 and 2003 for the grazed marsh and between the grazed and ungrazed marshes in 2003. This indicates that a generalized model could not be derived and that specific models would have to be established for each marsh. However, we determined that sampling 20 shoots per marsh would be sufficient to establish accurate models. Allometric models underestimated aboveground biomass obtained by destructive sampling and we thus computed correction factors. Total belowground biomass was adequately predicted by the aboveground biomass although the precision of the relationship varied between marshes and years. We concluded that non-destructive sampling can be used to estimate biomass of S. maritimus but that the technique must be adjusted for each study.

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) roots spoil 2–3 days after harvest due to post-harvest physiological deterioration (PPD), which had remained an unsolved problem until recent reports of genetic variation for tolerance to it. PPD is a genetically active, oxidative process triggered when the harvested roots are separated from their mother plant. The short shelf life of harvested roots results in large losses and high transport and marketing costs. Recent reports on positive genetic variation for tolerance to PPD will facilitate breeding for extended shelf life of the roots and a better understanding of the biochemical and genetic events leading to PPD. However, PPD scoring is difficult and prone to large experimental errors. It is often the case that roots from the same plant can have 0 and 100% PPD score due to injuries during the harvest process, variation in dry matter content and, most likely, other variables yet to be identified. Therefore, sampling a root for biochemical or genetic studies and measuring PPD in a different root, is not a reliable approach. A device has been developed and tested for the possibility of extracting a core of root parenchyma, filling the space with melted paraffin (to reduce oxygen availability), and then one or two weeks later visually quantifying PPD in the same root. Sampling the roots did not have any significant effect on PPD suggesting that the protocol can be used for biochemical composition and gene expression studies related to the causes of PPD and the possibilities of developing tolerance to it.

To assess the exposure of avian species in Jiangsu Province, China to eight heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn), the flight feathers, eggshells and feces of total ten avian species (including four herons, four cranes, one stork and one gull) were collected during March to May in 2012. The total concentrations of As, Cd and Hg were measured by Atomic Fluorescence Spectrometer; Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn were measured by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer. The determined concentrations of Cr (3.94, 1.33-8.30 mg kg(-1)), Cu (15.02, 7.34-35.53 mg kg(-1)) and Zn (134.66, 77.26-242.25 mg kg(-1)) in fresh feathers and Cd (7.93, 7.44-9.12 mg kg(-1)), Ni (22.74, 19.38-24.71 mg kg(-1)), Pb (85.06, 78.72-91.95 mg kg(-1)) and Zn (63.54, 55.82-72.14 mg kg(-1)) in eggshells were higher than the mean values of other reported data, indicating a considerable heavy metal pollution status in local area. Comparing to the heavy metal levels in early historic feathers (1992-2000), a significant elevation of concentrations has been observed in recent bird feathers. For feathers of Grus japonensis, the heavy metal concentrations increased by 19-267%. This increased tendency was consistent with local GDP (Gross Domestic Products) development. The anthropogenic economic activity especially industrial development may be a critical reason that caused the increase of heavy metal levels in local avian species.

With the growing interest in small aquatic water bodies, especially as naturally replicated model systems for ecological research, aquatic invertebrate communities in phytotelmata are increasingly receiving attention these days. The recognition of the substantial contribution to the regional species pool of specialised species draws further attention to these small and often temporary habitats. The methods currently used for studying communities in some types of phytotelma, such as bromeliads, tend to be destructive, typically involving complete dissection of the plant. The expected increase in sampling intensity associated with the increasing interest in phytotelmata may result in a negative impact on plant populations in some areas, decreasing numbers in an unsustainable way, especially in locations with ongoing, intensive research. We therefore aimed to investigate whether less-destructive sampling methods can achieve sufficient data quality to allow their use as alternatives to complete plant dissection. We tested the effectiveness of three such methods in measuring the aquatic invertebrate communities in tank bromeliads (Tillandsia guatemalensis) in Cusuco National Park, Honduras. The three methods were pipetting the water out of the bromeliad, turning the bromeliad upside down and dissecting only the outer part of the plant (the oldest, often deteriorating leaves). Overall, we found that these methods were poor predictors of richness and abundance of the organisms in communities. However, we found big differences between taxonomic groups, depending in part on the ecology of the organisms, and we suggest that some less-destructive alternative methods may be appropriate for studying some specific groups (e.g. Culicidae). Based on these results and a rapid survey of the abundance of bromeliads in the national park, we question whether intensive, ongoing research into aquatic invertebrate communities in similar phytotelma populations is sustainable. From the point of view of conservation, alternative model systems need to be found.

In outsourcing situations involving manufacturing and assembly, the sampling of units produced is important since in many situations not all of the units can be tested. Destructive sampling, which commonly occurs in the assembly and manufacturing industry, is a form of sampling where all units produced cannot be tested since the parts are destructively tested. In this situation, sampling techniques are used to determine if an entire lot should be accepted or rejected based on the sampling results. The traditional sampling techniques include single or classical sampling, double sampling, multiple sampling, skip-lot sampling, chain sampling and MIL-STD-105E. The purpose of this paper is to develop a sophisticated technique that monitors quality at a lower cost than traditional methods yet has similar monitoring characteristics in situations where quality is high and tests are destructive. The proposed technique, Destructive Sampling Method for High Quality production processes (DSM-HQ), is based on a cost function, which balances the costs of sampling versus the costs of finding a defect on the field. DSM-HQ assumes to have a Poisson process defect pattern and uses an Empirical Bayesian analysis to allow the researcher to include prior knowledge.

The use of non-destructive sampling methods to collect genetic material from wildlife allows researchers to minimize disturbance. Most avian studies employ capturing and handling of young and parents to draw blood for DNA analysis. In some cases adult female birds are difficult to catch, so maternal genotyping has required collection of contour feathers from nests, or destructive sampling of eggs. Many species do not leave contour feathers in the nest, and destructive sampling has been unreliable due to contamination with embryonic DNA. Alternative field sampling techniques for collection of maternal DNA from birds are therefore desirable. Here we demonstrate that avian maternal DNA can be isolated in a non-invasive and non-destructive way from the external surface of eggs. We used cotton swabs to collect maternal DNA from the external shells of herring gull (Larus argentatus) and Caspian tern (Sterna caspia) eggs. DNA was then amplified by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for microsatellite genotyping. We verified that the DNA samples were maternal by comparing microsatellite profiles to those obtained from adults and chicks from the same nests. In 100% of Caspian tern (n=16) and herring gull families (n=12), the egg swabs that amplified matched the maternal microsatellite genotype. In a screening of many nests of both species, we successfully amplified microsatellite markers from 101/115 (88%) egg swabs. Swabs from eggs with blood stains on the shell were more likely to amplify successfully than those from clean eggs. The advantages of this new method include increased parentage assignment/exclusion power, and increased availability of maternal DNA for genotyping of species that do not deposit contour feathers in nests.

El cultivo de papaya (Carica papaya L.) es muy importante en la fruticultura del departamento de Córdoba, por la buena calidad de la fruta producida. La investigación, se realizó en Montería, a 13msnm, temperatura media de 27.4°C, precipitación anual de 1346,1mm, humedad relativa de 84% y brillo solar anual de 2180,2 horas, con el fin de obtener un modelo que permita estimar el área foliar de la planta, a partir de muestreo no destructivo. Mediante muestreo aleatorio simple, se seleccionaron hojas sanas de plantas adultas, de diferentes tamaños y distintas etapas de desarrollo, de los doseles superior, medio e inferior, de la variedad Maradol roja. Se tomaron medidas longitudinales: largo y ancho máximo de la hoja, ancho de la hoja a un medio, un tercio, un cuarto, un quinto y dos tercios de su largo, ancho máximo de lóbulos y longitud de nervadura de los mismos, con la finalidad de determinar las medidas altamente relacionadas con el área fotosintética de la hoja. El área foliar (Y), se midió por el método de relación peso: área, sobre una muestra de 30 hojas por dosel. Se construyeron modelos de regresión simple y múltiple, para luego seleccionar el de mejor ajuste. Se seleccionó un modelo de regresión simple, cuya variable explicativa corresponde a la longitud de la nervadura central del lóbulo izquierdo, contiguo al adyacente lóbulo medio (X). El modelo ajustado resultó ser: o = -303,0742 + 31,2028X, R² = 0,9335.The papaya (Carica papaya L) is a very important crop in the Cordoba state, especially for the good fruit quality. This research was carried out at Montería at 13masl, 27.4°C, annual rainfall of 1346.1mm, 84% relative humidity and 2180.2 hours annual sunlight, in order to obtain a model to estimate the plants leaf area, based on non-destructive sampling. A probability sampling procedure was used to select different size leaves and developmental stages from the upper, middle and lower canopy of adult plants of the red Maradol variety. Maximum leaf length and width, width of the middle third, fourth, fifth and two-thirds of leaf length, lobe width and midrib length of every lobe were registered with the purpose of identifying measures highly related to photosynthetic leaf area. The leaf area (Y) was measured based on the weight:area relation, from 30 leaves per canopy sample. Simple linear regression models and multiple linear regression were adjusted. A simple linear regression model was selected which independent variable representing the length of the midrib, next to the left next lobe and adjacent to the middle lobe (X). The adjusted model was: or = -303,0742 + 31,2028X, R² = 0,9335.

To avoid that defective units reach downstream production stages and cause a considerable amount of costs, quality control steps must be implemented. However, quality control steps cause further costs. Implemented sampling inspections are an opportunity to check the quality of lots within the production. In order to keep the costs to a minimum, the production planning must determine sample plans which incur the lowest costs. Due to the high number of different parameters and possible sample plans, this determination is extremely complicated. In order to deal with this issue, a tool to determine the economically optimal sample plan for destructive and nondestructive sampling inspection by attributes was developed. This paper describes the development of the tool as well as the procedure of the tool. The development is based on various sampling inspection related key figures and the international standard ISO 2859.

Aspartic acid racemization has been found to be an accurate measure of age at death for recent forensic material. This paper examines the practicality of using acid etching of the tooth surface to extract amino acids from the enamel for racemization analysis. By serial etching of the tooth and contamination of the teeth with bovine serum albumin prior to etching, the ability of etching to remove contamination was assessed. The destructiveness of the method was visualized and quantified using micro-computed tomography (micro-CT). By bleaching the teeth and by deeper etching it was possible to obtain more consistent values. While etching had little effect on the enamel at the macroscale, it did have an impact at the microscale. The quantities of enamel removed varied depending upon the tooth morphology, but were not large. Acid etching of enamel thus appears to be a promising new method for extracting proteins for amino acid racemization age estimation noninvasively. © 2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences.

Customers are requiring producers to conduct destructive testing using traditional sampling techniques as monitoring tools. These techniques are not well suited for situations where the quality is high and tests are destructive since a high number of units need to be tested (and in turn destroyed) in order to guarantee good quality. Furthermore, traditional sampling methods are not specifically designed to monitor a high-quality production process where destructive tests are required and therefore make costly and inefficient monitoring tools. A sampling method is developed to monitor quality in high-quality processes where destructive testing is required. This method is based on a cost function, which balances the costs of sampling versus the costs of finding a defect on the field. It assumes a Poisson process defect pattern and uses an empirical Bayes updating scheme.

Adult bean thrips, Caliothrips fasciatus (Pergande), over-wintering inside the navel of navel oranges in California are an export problem when detected in fruit sent to Australia. At present, a systems approach is used to reduce fruit infestation levels and one component of this approach is to search for thrips inside the navel by cutting 50 fruit per block prior to harvest and 75 fruit per grower lot before packing in the packinghouse with any detection of live bean thrips leading to that grower lot not being eligible for shipment to Australia. Given that bean thrips infestation levels are often 0.5% of the fruit or less, this amount of fruit cutting can lead to shipment of infested lots of citrus to Australia. As an alternative to cutting more fruit, two non-destructive methods of sampling for bean thrips inside the navel of navel oranges were investigated which might be used on larger numbers of fruit and result in fewer infested lots being shipped to Australia. A light trap at the apex of a pyramid-shaped black cloth tent caught 41.1% of adult bean thrips released at the bottom of the tent. When this experiment was repeated with the tent placed over a citrus bin two-thirds full of fruit, however, only 9.3% of thrips released at the bottom of the bin were captured. A second method of sampling, washing bean thrips out of the navel onto a screen, resulted in close to 90% recovery of thrips with each of the five spray rinses evaluated, including distilled water. Regression analysis indicated there was no statistical difference between results with the five rinses. Thus, it might be worthwhile trying to scale-up our laboratory method of rinsing with distilled water to a method that might be used in a commercial packinghouse for detection of bean thrips in large numbers of fruit. Even if one assumes that cutting fruit is 100% efficient in finding bean thrips inside the navel of navel oranges, sampling a much larger number of fruit using a method with 90% efficiency is shown to result in higher odds of finding any bean thrips that are present.

This paper presents a standardized protocol for the non-lethal capture of fishes, sampling of stomach contents and quantification of seed dispersal efficiency by frugivorous fishes. Neotropical pacu Piaractus mesopotamicus individuals were collected with fruit-baited hooks. The diets of 110 fish were sampled using a lavage method, which retrieved90% of stomach contents of both juveniles and adults and allowed individuals to recover within 5 min of treatment. The proportional volume of six food categories was similar for stomachs and whole digestive tracts retrieved by dissection. Fruit pulp was proportionally lower in the stomach. The abundance and species richness of intact seeds increased with fish size independent of whether only stomachs or whole digestive tracts were analysed. The analysis of stomach contents accounted for 62·5% of the total species richness of seeds dispersed by P. mesopotamicus and 96% of common seeds (seed species retrieved from more than one fish). Germination trials revealed that seed viability was similar for seeds collected from the stomach via lavage and seeds that passed through the entire digestive tract. Therefore, stomach contents provide an unbiased representation of the dietary patterns and seed dispersal of frugivorous fishes.

The article of record as published may be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep05113 Plant species, including algae and fungi, are based on type specimens to which the name of a taxon is permanently attached. Applying a scientific name to any specimen therefore requires demonstrating correspondence between the type and that specimen. Traditionally, identifications are based on morpho-anatomical characters, but recently systematists are using DNA sequence data. These studies are flawed if the DNA is isolated from misidentified modern specimens. We propose a genome-based solution. Using 4x4 mm² of material from type specimens, we assembled 14 plastid and 15 mitochondrial genomes attributed to the red algae Pyropia perforata, Py. fucicola, and Py. kanakaensis. The chloroplast genomes were fairly conserved, but the mitochondrial genomes differed significantly among populations in content and length. Complete genomes are attainable from 19th and early 20th century type specimens; this validates the effort and cost of their curation as well as supports the practice of the type method. P.W.G. and Dr. Kelly Locke, Title V grant director at Hartnell College Grant number- PO31C110168

Estimates of gill-net selectivity for the cyprinid fish, Labeo umbratus, were compared using two conventional and two new estimation methods. All four methods provided similar estimates. The SELECT method was shown to be the simplest and most robust statistically. The Sechin model was found to be appropriate for the smaller mesh sizes. Being based on fish morphology, the Sechin model is not suggested for estimating the gill-net selectivity when fish are likely to get tangled. Although the direct fyke-net method appeared to adequately estimate gill-net selectivity, large sample sizes are required to obtain an accurate estimate of the population structure. This method is, therefore, considered appropriate for high-density populations and may have application for species that are likely to get tangled. The length-structured selectivity model was the most complicated mathematically. While it accurately described the gear selection process it required additional estimates of age and growth.

Net aerial primary production (NAPP) of marsh macrophytes is usually estimated either by destructive sampling techniques or by phenometric techniques. Destructive methods, however, are thought to be inaccurate while phenometric techniques are very labour intensive. In this study a new method is presented which allows an accurate and more efficient estimation of NAPP. The method combines destructive sampling to determine end-of-season biomass and phenometric techniques to estimate the mortality of biomass before the end of the season. NAPP is derived through summation of these two estimates. Techniques needed to calculate the precision of the NAPP estimate are provided. The so called hybrid technique was used to estimate NAPP of Scirpus maritimus i,. in a brackish marsh along the Westerschelde estuary, the Netherlands. Estimated NAPP was 1372 g m(-2). End- of-season biomass accounted for 1 106 g m(-2), while mortality contributed 266 g m(-2). Precision of the end-of-season biomass and the mortality estimates, expressed as coefficient of variation, was 18.2 and 26.0% respectively. The precision of the resultant, NAPP, was higher: 17.2%. These results indicate that NAPP could be estimated with a higher precision than end- of-season biomass. This contradicts the view that the accuracy of NAPP estimates can only be improved at the expense of its precision. [KEYWORDS: aboveground production; accuracy; methodology; phenometric techniques; precision; salt marsh; vegetation Salt-marsh; spartina-alterniflora; coastal louisiana; biomass; angiosperms; frequency]

This study evaluated non-destructive sampling methods (i.e., fecal droppings, cecal droppings, and cloacal swabs) to monitor the presence of Campylobacter spp. in broiler chickens on four commercial broiler chicken farms. Samples were taken throughout an 8 wk growout period to assess the presence of the organism during production. During the entire growout period, 45% of 964 fecal droppings, 58% of 284 cecal droppings, and 41% of 786 cloacal swabs presented as positive for Campylobacter spp. This finding indicated that the sampling of cecal droppings was the most sensitive, non-destructive sampling method. This study provides data indicating optimal non-destructive sampling methods for assessing Campylobacter spp. and indicates the typical frequency curve for flock colonization.