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Limited data exists on the interrelationships between physical activity (PA), sedentary behaviors and sleep concerning cardiometabolic risk factors in aged adults at high cardiovascular disease risk. Our aim was to examine independent and joint associations between time spent in leisure-time PA, sedentary behaviors and sleep on the prevalence of obesity, type 2 diabetes (T2D) and components of the metabolic syndrome (MetS) in Mediterranean individuals at high cardiovascular risk. Cross-sectional analyses were performed on baseline data from 5776 Spanish adults (aged 55-75y in men; 60-75y in women) with overweight/ obesity and MetS, from October 2013 to October 2016, in the PREDIMED-PLUS trial. Employing multivariable-adjusted Cox regression with robust variance and constant time (given the cross-sectional design), higher prevalence of obesity, T2D and abdominal obesity as component of the MetS were associated with greater time in TV-viewing (Relative Risk, RR: 1.02, 95%CI: 1.01, 1.03; RR:1.04, 95%CI: 1.02, 1.06 and RR: 1.01 95%CI: 1.00, 1.02; respectively, all P < .01). Conversely, greater time in moderate-vigorous PA (MVPA) was associated with lower prevalence of obesity, T2D, abdominal obesity and low HDL-cholesterol (RR: 0.95, 95%CI: 0.93, 0.97; RR: 0.94, 95%CI: 0.89, 0.99; RR: 0.97, 95%CI: 0.96, 0.98; and RR: 0.95, 95%CI: 0.91, 0.99, respectively, all P < .05). For these outcomes, theoretically substituting 1-h/day of MVPA for 1-h/day TV-viewing was also significantly associated with lower prevalence (RR 0.91 to 0.97, all P < .05). Similar lower RR in these outcomes was observed when substituting 1-h/day of MVPA for 1-h/day of sleeping. Longer time watching TV and not meeting MVPA recommendations were jointly associated with higher RR of the prevalence of o

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Scaptomyza (Titanochaeta) Diagnosis. Titanochaeta was erected by Knab (1914) as a genus of endemic Hawaiian Drosophilidae. Hardy (1965) suggested that this genus actually should be considered a subgenus of Scaptomyza based on a variety of morphological characters including conspicuous surstyli which project well beyond the margins of the ninth tergite (Fig. 3), lack of ventral rays on the arista, and a short head which is approximately two times higher than long. We are placing the eleven known species of Titanochaeta, all of which are parasitic on spider egg sacs, in a subgenus of Scaptomyza. Chaetotaxy is an important synapomorphy of the subgenus Titanochaeta. These species have eight rows of acrostichal setulae, a character not seen in the other species of Scaptomyza. Furthermore, the setae on the head and thorax are very strong, the vertical setae are often longer than the head is wide. The shape of the head is also characteristic. It is equal to or narrower than the thorax in width, with a distinctly oblique, slanted front which is often more than two times longer than the lower margin of the head. The genae are straight sided and indented along the anterior eye margin. Finally, the ovipositor of most taxa is long and needle��like, probably due to the parasitic lifestyle of these taxa. Discussion. The new subgeneric status of Titanochaeta in Scaptomyza requires that we propose new replacement names for T. evexa, T. kauaiensis, and T. silvicola because those specific epithets are preoccupied in the genus Scaptomyza. We propose: Scaptomyza neoevexa O���Grady et al., new replacement name for Titanochaeta evexa (Hardy, 1965) (preoccupied by Scaptomyza evexa Hardy, 1965), Scaptomyza neokauaiensis O���Grady et al., new replacement name, for Titanochaeta kauaiensis (Hardy, 1965) (preoccupied by Scaptomyza kauaiensis Hackman, 1959), and Scaptomyza neosilvicola O���Grady et al., new replacement name, for Titanochaeta silvicola (Hardy, 1965) (preoccupied by Scaptomyza silvicola Hardy, 1965). Included Taxa. Scaptomyza (Titanochaeta) bryani (Wirth), comb. nov. from Hawai���i, O���ahu, and Maui Nui, S. (Titanochaeta) chauliodon (Hardy), comb. nov. from Maui and O���ahu, S. (Titanochaeta) contestata (Hardy), comb. nov. from O���ahu, S. (Titanochaeta) glauca (Hardy), comb. nov. from Maui, S. (Titanochaeta) ichneumon (Knab), comb. nov. from Hawai���i, S. (Titanochaeta) neoevexa O���Grady et al., from Moloka���i, S. (Titanochaeta) neokauaiensis O���Grady et al., from Kaua���i, S. (Titanochaeta) setosiscutellum (Hardy), comb. nov. from Hawai���i and Moloka���i, S. (Titanochaeta) neosilvicola O���Grady et al., from Hawai���i, S. (Titanochaeta) sweyzei (Wirth), comb. nov. from Kaua���i, Maui, and O���ahu, and S. (Titanochaeta) vittigera (Hardy), comb. nov. from Kaua���i (Nishida, 2002). Discussion. The species in this group are infrequently collected and poorly understood taxonomically. The fact that a number of species in the subgenus Titanochaeta are present on multiple, non��adjacent islands suggests that they are either better at dispersing or have a lower rate of speciation than other endemic Hawaiian groups. It also might indicate that there are additional cryptic species remaining to be described in this group. KEY TO SPECIES OF THE SUBGENUS Titanochaeta Knab 17. Female ovipositor blunt, rounded at apex........................................ contestata (Hardy) �� Ovipositor pointed, needle��like............................................................................���18 18. Crossveins distinctly infuscated; M1 between crossveins dm��cu and r��m short, about 1/5 length of M1 measured from crossvein dm��cu to apex. Maui, O���ahu, Kaua���i ......................................................................................................................... swezeyi (Wirth) �� Crossveins not infuscated; M1 between crossveins dm��cu and r��m greater than 1/5 the length of M1 between dm��cu and apex...................................................................... 19 19. Sides of scutellum with conspicuous setae in addition to anterior and posterior scutellars; both katepisternal setae well developed, roughly subequal in length................ 20 �� Scutellum lacking secondary setae; length of anterior katepisternal setae variable, ranging from short to subequal setae................................................................................. 21 20. Mesonotum and scutellum entirely yellow, abdomen predominantly yellow Southern O���ahu, Hawai���i, Maui, Moloka���i, Lana���i ................................................. bryani (Wirth) �� Mesonotum mostly black in ground color, covered with gray pollen; scutellum black, abdomen mostly black. Moloka���i, Hawai���i .............................. setosiscutellum (Hardy) 21. Anterior katepisternal strong, about equal in length to posterior katepisternal setae; surstyli bear a strong black spine at the apex of a prominent posterior projection; apical fork of arista long or bifid, giving the appearance of a ventral ray. Maui, O���ahu ............................................................................................................ chauliodon (Hardy) �� Anterior katepisternal not over 1/2 length of posterior, usually small and hair��like; male genitalia not as above; arista with short terminal fork, never long or bifid........ 22 22. Mesonotum predominantly yellow with three narrow brown vittae extending the full length; incomplete brown vittae present on the pleurae; scutellum with a brown spot extending over basal 1/2; abdomen dark brown, distinctly marked with yellow. Kaua���i............................................................................................................ vittigera (Hardy) �� Predominantly black species, mesonotum and scutellum entirely black in ground color, lacking vittae............................................................................................................. 23 23. First two abdominal segments almost entirely yellow................................................ 24 �� Abdomen almost entirely black, a narrow yellow band may be present at the apex of second tergum............................................................................................................ 26 24. Tergites three and four shining black, five and six yellow; epandrium about two times longer than high, truncated ventrally; no projection along medial surface of surstylus observed in ventral view. Moloka���i .......................................... neoevexa O���Grady et al. �� Abdomen predominantly brown or black; epandrium about two times higher than long, tapered ventrally; moderate to strong projection on medial surface of surstyli when observed in ventral view................................................................................... 25 25. Abdominal tergites four to six brownish yellow on lateral margins, darker on dorsum; male genitalia brownish yellow; pleurae largely brown; surstyli, when observed in lateral view, with sharply pointed projection on mediolateral surface and sharply pointed spine��like process on posterior margin. Hawai���i............................ ichneumon (Knab) �� Abdominal tergites four to six, including genitalia, predominantly shining black; pleurae entirely yellow; surstyli, when observed in lateral view, lacking sharply pointed projection on mediolateral surface, process on posterodorsal surface of surstyli broad, not spine��like and pointed. Kaua���i .................................. neokauaiensis O���Grady et al. 26. Abdomen shining black beyond second tergite; male genitalia yellow; anterior reclinate inserted near lower 1/3 of fronto��orbital plate. Maui .................... glauca (Hardy) �� Abdomen black, dusted with gray; male genitalia black; anterior reclinate inserted near middle of fronto orbital plate. Hawai���i.............................. neosilvicola O���Grady et al., Published as part of O'Grady, Patrick, Bonacum, James, Desalle, R. & Val, Francisca Do, 2003, The placement of Engiscaptomyza, Grimshawomyia, and Titanochaeta, three clades of endemic Hawaiian Drosophilidae (Diptera), pp. 1-16 in Zootaxa 159 (1) on pages 12-14, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.159.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/5014208, {"references":["Knab, F. (1914) Drosophilidae with parasitic larvae. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus, 2 (1), 165 - 169.","Hardy, D. E. (1965) Diptera: Cyclorrhapha II, Series Schizophora, Section Acalypterae I, Family Drosophilidae. Insects of Hawaii, 12, 1 - 814.","Hackman, W. (1959). On the Genus Scaptomyza Hardy (Diptera, Drosophilidae). Acta Zoologica Fennica, 97, 3 - 73.","Nishida, G. M. (2002) Hawaiian Terrestrial Arthropod Checklist. Fourth edition. Bishop Museum Technical Report, 22, iv + 313 p."]}

Scaptomyza Hardy, 1850 (Figures 1���6) Scaptomyza Hardy, 1850: 361. Type species: Drosophila graminum Fall��n, 1823, by subsequent designation (Coquillett, 1910: 603). Titanochaeta Knab, 1914: 167. Type species: Titanochaeta ichneumon Knab, 1914, by original designation. Syn. nov. Scaptomyzella Hendel, 1928:290. Type species: Drosophila flava Fall��n, 1823, by original designation. Scaptomyzetta Hendel, 1928: 290 (incorrect original spelling of Scaptomyzella). Grimshawomyia Hardy, 1965: 535. Type species: Drosophila perkinsi Grimshaw, 1901, by original designation. Syn. nov. Engiscaptomyza Kaneshiro, 1969: 80 (as subgenus of Drosophila). Type species: Drosophila crassifemur Grimshaw, 1901, by original designation. Syn. nov. Diagnosis. Scaptomyza is a cosmopolitan genus that currently contains about 15 subgenera (Wheeler 1981, 1986), some of which have been designated as separate genera at one time or another (Frey 1954; Hackman 1959, 1982; Malloch 1934). The traditional definition of Scaptomyza includes taxa with two to four rows of acrostichal setulae, two pairs of postsutural dorsocentral setae (and sometimes with a single set of presutural dorsocentrals as well), the third costal section 2.5 times longer than the fourth, and the head distinctly longer than high (Hardy 1965). However, a rather large radiation of about 150 described species present in the Hawaiian Archipelago, has broadened this definition somewhat, mainly because of atypical characters possessed by some of these taxa (Hackman 1959, 1962, 1982). For example, many members of the subgenus Elmomyza have six rows of acrostichal setulae, suggesting that this character may be quite variable within Scaptomyza. Therefore, having either two or four rows of acrostichals is not a good synapomorphy for the genus Scaptomyza, although it may be useful at delimiting some subgenera. Perhaps the best character defining all Scaptomyza is the presence of well developed, exposed surstyli and enlarged lobes on either the epandrium (ninth tergite), cerci, or both. These morphologies are also characteristic of the genera Grimshawomyia and Titanochaeta, as well as the subgenus Engiscaptomyza. An additional character, found in females of most species, is a weakly developed, fleshy, non��dentate ovipositor. Titanochaeta is atypical in this character as females of this group have a slender, sharply pointed, stylet��like ovipositor, a character that may be an adaptation to a lifestyle as a spider egg sac predator. Methods. We have examined the types, as well as large series of other material, from all species placed in Titanochaeta, Engiscaptomyza, and Grimshawomyia (Table 1). We also have examined material from most recognized subgenera of the genus Scaptomyza. Based on this work, we selected a number of taxa placed in the genus Scaptomyza, as well as representatives of Drosophila (Engiscaptomyza), Grimshawomyia, and Titanochaeta thought to be closely related to this genus, for use in the current molecular and morphological analyses. Over 3.3 kilobase pairs of nucleotide sequence from five genes (16S, Adh, COI, COII, Gpdh) were examined in about 120 drosophilid species using a variety of phylogenetic methods (Bonacum 2001). The phylogeny shown in figure 1 is the result of a maximum parsimony analysis (addition sequences = random, number of replicates = 100, branch swap = TBR). The search recovered four most parsimonious trees [length 33,181; CI = 0.31; RI = 0.53; see Bonacum (2001) for more detail]; figure 1 is from the strict consensus. Measures of support include bootstrap proportions (BP; Felsenstein 1985, 1988), and decay indices (DI; Bremer 1988). This phylogeny shown is part of a larger study treating phylogenetic relationships within the entire Hawaiian Drosophilidae (Bonacum 2001; Bonacum et al. in press) and includes several outgroups, as well as representatives of all major Hawaiian Drosophila lineages. Based on this taxon sampling, we feel confident in making statements concerning the relationships of the Hawaiian Drosophilidae and the genus Scaptomyza. Morphological analyses were done either using light or scanning electron microscopy. Specimens were prepared as follows: adult flies stored in 70% ETOH were completely dehydrated via sequential washes with 80%, 90%, 95% and 100% ETOH. These specimens were then critical point dried using standard protocols (Grimaldi 1987). Male genitalic structures were dissected from the abdomen and adhered to a specimen mount (Ted Pella, Inc.) using double coated, carbon conductive tabs (Ted Pella, Inc.). The material was sputter coated and visualized using a Hitachi S4700 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope. All image files were saved in.tif file format and edited in Adobe Photoshop 5.0 (Adobe Systems, Inc.). Image files are available upon request. Results and Discussion. The molecular and morphological data strongly support the notion that the genera Titanochaeta and Grimshawomyia, as well as the Drosophila subgenus Engiscaptomyza, actually belong within the genus Scaptomyza. The molecular phylogeny we present (Fig. 1) shows high support for a clade containing these three endemic Hawaiian groups with several subgenera of the genus Scaptomyza (BP = 100, DI = 24.75). Although support for the Hawaiian Scaptomyza lineage plus Titanochaeta, Grimshawomyia and the subgenus Engiscaptomyza is quite robust, relationships within this clade are not well supported. Only the monophyly of the subgenus Bunostoma (BP = 100, DI = 44.5) and the sister group relationship of S. (Scaptomyza) graminum and S. (Parascaptomyza) elmoi (BP = 100, DI = 24) are well supported (Fig. 1). The latter relationship, however, implies that the subgenus Parascaptomyza is not monophyletic. This phylogeny also calls into question the monophyly of Engiscaptomyza, placing S. crassifemur as the sistertaxon of S. chauliodon and S. nasalis as the sister of S. palata (Fig. 1). Clearly, the large Scaptomyza lineage will need to be surveyed more extensively and completely revised in order to resolve these issues.. Scanning electron microscopy was used to compare the morphology of the male genitalia of Titanochaeta, Grimshawomyia, and the crassifemur group with Scaptomyza and Drosophila. It is clear that, based on several characters, the three endemic Hawaiian groups are more closely related to Scaptomyza than they are to Drosophila. For example, the epandria and cerci of Titanochaeta, Grimshawomyia, Scaptomyza, and Engiscaptomyza are all highly modified, possessing expanded lateral lobes that often bear elongate setae (Figs. 2���6). Hardy (1965: 606) noticed these characters and cautioned against referring to them as secondary claspers because he preferred ���to use this term only for those distinctly clasper��like lobes...which bear strong spines.��� In addition, the genitalia of Scaptomyza, Titanochaeta, Grimshawomyia, and Engiscaptomyza have a more ���open��� arrangement, where the surstyli and lateral lobes of the epandrium form a ���cup��� on the ventrodistal surface of the abdomen (Figs. 2��6). This is in contrast to the genus Drosophila, where the surstyli are closely oppressed on either side of the aedeagus and lateral lobes on the epandrium or anal plates are generally absent. Chromosome studies also suggest a close affinity between Scaptomyza, Engiscaptomyza and Titanochaeta (Clayton et al. 1972; Yoon et al. 1975). The metaphase configurations (1 V��shaped, 3 rods, and 1 dot; N = 5) is shared between Scaptomyza, Titanochaeta, Engiscaptomyza and some species in the modified mouthparts species group (genus Drosophila). All other Hawaiian Drosophila species have the ���ancestral��� karyotype (5 rods and 1 dot; N = 6) for the genus Drosophila. It has been suggested that this reduction in chromosome number has taken place via centric fusion events (Patterson & Stone 1952). Our molecular phylogeny (Fig. 1) suggests that this has taken place at least twice ��� once in the modified mouthpart species and again in the Scaptomyza lineage (which contains Titanochaeta, Engiscaptomyza, and Grimshawomyia). Based on the morphological, chromosomal, and molecular evidence, we propose placing the genera Titanochaeta and Grimshawomyia into the genus Scaptomyza as subgenera. We are also moving the subgenus Engiscaptomyza from the genus Drosophila to Scaptomyza. This placement will broaden the morphological concept of the genus Scaptomyza which will, in turn facilitate further taxonomic studies on this poorly understood and complex group., Published as part of O'Grady, Patrick, Bonacum, James, Desalle, R. & Val, Francisca Do, 2003, The placement of Engiscaptomyza, Grimshawomyia, and Titanochaeta, three clades of endemic Hawaiian Drosophilidae (Diptera), pp. 1-16 in Zootaxa 159 (1) on pages 2-6, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.159.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/5014208, {"references":["Fallen, F. (1823) Diptera Sueciae. II. Dipterorum antennis paramarticulatis instructoram. Sectionen posteriorem continens. Berlingianis, Lund.","Coquillett, D. W. (1910) The type-species of the North American genera of Diptera. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 37, 499 - 647.","Knab, F. (1914) Drosophilidae with parasitic larvae. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus, 2 (1), 165 - 169.","Hendel, F. (1928) Uber die minierenden europaischen Scaptomyza - Arten und ihre Biologie (Diptera). Zoologischer Anzeiger, 76, 289 - 302.","Hardy, D. E. (1965) Diptera: Cyclorrhapha II, Series Schizophora, Section Acalypterae I, Family Drosophilidae. Insects of Hawaii, 12, 1 - 814.","Grimshaw, P. H. (1901) Diptera. Pp. 1 - 77 in Fauna Hawaiiensis. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press, London.","Kaneshiro, K. Y. (1969) The Drosophila crassifemur group of species in a new subgenus. University of Texas Publications, 6918, 79 - 83.","Wheeler, M. R. (1981) The Drosophilidae: a taxonomic overview. In: The genetics and biology of Drosophila. Volume 3 a (M. Ashburner, J. N. Thompson, and H. L. Carson, eds.) Pp. 1 - 97. Academic Press, London.","Wheeler, M. R. (1986) Additions to the catalog of the world's Drosophilidae. In The Genetics and Biology of Drosophila, Volume 3 e (M. Ashburner, J. N. Thompson, & H. L. Carson, eds.) Pp. 395 - 409. Academic Press, London.","Frey, R. (1954) Diptera Brachycera und Sciaridae von Tristan da Cunha. Results of the Norwegian Expedition to Tristan da Cunha (1937 - 1938), 26, 1 - 55.","Hackman, W. (1959). On the Genus Scaptomyza Hardy (Diptera, Drosophilidae). Acta Zoologica Fennica, 97, 3 - 73.","Hackman, W. (1982) The relation between the genera Scaptomyza and Drosophila (Diptera, Drosophilidae). Annales Entomologici Fennici, 48, 97 - 104.","Malloch, J. R. (1934) Additional new species and other records of acalyptrate Diptera (Sapromyzidae, Asteiidae, Drosophilidae, Ephydridae and Trypetidae) from the Marquesas Islands. Bulletin of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, 114, 179 - 200.","Hackman, W. (1962) On Hawaiian Scaptomyza species (Dipt., Drosophilidae). Notulae Entomologicae, 42, 33 - 42.","Bonacum, J. (2001) Molecular systematics of the Hawaiian Drosophilidae. Ph. D. Dissertation, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.","Felsenstein, J. (1985) Confidence limits on phylogenies: an approach using the bootstrap. Evolution 39: 783 - 791.","Felsenstein, J. (1988) Phylogenies from molecular sequences: inference and reliability. Annual Review of Genetics, 22, 521 - 565.","Bremer, K. (1988). The limits of amino acid sequence data in angiosperm phylogenetic reconstruction. Evolution, 42, 795 - 803.","Grimaldi, D. A. (1987) Phylogenetics and taxonomy of Zygothrica (Diptera: Drosophilidae). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 186, 103 - 268.","Clayton, F. E., Carson, H. L. & Sato, J. E. (1972) Polytene chromosome relationships in Hawaiian species of Drosophila. VI. Supplementary data on metaphases and gene sequences. University of Texas Publications, 7213, 163 - 177.","Yoon, J. S., Resch K., Wheeler, M. R., & Richardson, R. H. (1975) Evolution in Hawaiian Drosophilidae: chromosomal phylogeny of the Drosophila crassifemur complex. Evolution, 29, 249 - 256.","Patterson, J. T. & Stone, W. S. (1952) Evolution in the genus Drosophila. Macmillan Company, New York. 610 p."]}

Scaptomyza (Grimshawomyia) Diagnosis. The genus Grimshawomyia was described by Hardy (1965) and contains two species, G. palata and G. perkinsi, the latter of which was initially described as a member of the genus Drosophila by Grimshaw (1901). The unique male genitalia, which feature surstyli that are exposed and an epandrium which is developed into a pair of moderately large lateral lobes, extending beyond the apices of the surstyli (Figs. 5��6), suggest that these taxa actually form a clade within the genus Scaptomyza. This clade is also characterized by having the second antennal segment sharply pointed at the apex, extending over the base of the third segment; the vertical and ocellar setae inserted into the somewhat swollen sides of the vertex; a long costal fringe, which extends nearly to vein R 4+5, and the distinctive wing markings. Included Taxa. Scaptomyza (Grimshawomyia) palata (Hardy), comb. nov. from Maui and O���ahu, and S. (Grimshawomyia) perkinsi (Grimshaw), comb. nov. from Maui, O���ahu and Hawai���i (Nishida, 2002). KEY TO SPECIES OF THE SUBGENUS Grimshawomyia Hardy 16. Clypeus and lower margin of the face yellow; wing with distinct pattern, apex lightly infuscated; two reclinate orbital setae present on frons; coxae predominantly yellow; foretarsi brown to black; third costal section shorter, roughly 2.5 times longer than fourth; each pleuron with a broad, transverse yellow vitta, lower 1/2 of katepisternum yellow, surstyli longer than wide, each with a row of fine teeth on venter. Hawai���i............................................................................................................ perkinsi (Grimshaw) �� Clypeus pale brown; lower margin of the face predominantly brown, with a thin band of yellow; wing pattern similar to above, but with hyaline area at apex; three distinct reclinate orbital setae present on frons; coxae brown; foretarsi yellow; third costal section longer, about 3.5 times longer than fourth; pleura almost entirely brown, lacking distinct vittae; surstyli plainly visible, evenly rounded on ventral surface, lacking conspicuous teeth. O���ahu, Maui ................................................................... palata (Hardy), Published as part of O'Grady, Patrick, Bonacum, James, Desalle, R. & Val, Francisca Do, 2003, The placement of Engiscaptomyza, Grimshawomyia, and Titanochaeta, three clades of endemic Hawaiian Drosophilidae (Diptera), pp. 1-16 in Zootaxa 159 (1) on pages 10-12, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.159.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/5014208, {"references":["Hardy, D. E. (1965) Diptera: Cyclorrhapha II, Series Schizophora, Section Acalypterae I, Family Drosophilidae. Insects of Hawaii, 12, 1 - 814.","Grimshaw, P. H. (1901) Diptera. Pp. 1 - 77 in Fauna Hawaiiensis. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press, London.","Nishida, G. M. (2002) Hawaiian Terrestrial Arthropod Checklist. Fourth edition. Bishop Museum Technical Report, 22, iv + 313 p."]}

Scaptomyza (Engiscaptomyza) Diagnosis. Mesonotum typically with five dark brown to black vittae extending the full length, the lateral vittae may be interrupted at the suture (Kaneshiro 1969). The male genitalia of the Engiscaptomyza species are also quite similar to those of the genus Scaptomyza, characterized by large lobes of the epandria and prominent surstyli (Fig. 4). Some species (i.e., S. crassifemur) also possess enlarged, swollen femora. Included Taxa. Scaptomyza (Engiscaptomyza) ampliloba (Hardy), comb. nov. from Kaua���i, S. (Engiscaptomyza) crassifemur (Grimshaw), comb. nov. from Maui and Moloka���i, S. (Engiscaptomyza) inflata (Kaneshiro), comb. nov. from O���ahu, S. (Engiscaptomyza) lonchoptera (Hardy), comb. nov. from Maui, S. (Engiscaptomyza) nasalis (Grimshaw), comb. nov. from Maui and Moloka���i, S. (Engiscaptomyza) reducta (Hardy), comb. nov. from Hawai'i, S. (Engiscaptomyza) undulata Grimshaw comb. nov. from Hawai���i (Nishida 2002) Discussion. Kaneshiro (1969) recognized a single species group (crassifemur) containing two subgroups (crassifemur and nasalis) within this subgenus. We will leave all taxonomic ranks below the level of subgenus intact. The polytene chromosome of the subgenus Engiscaptomyza, unlike those of the remainder of the genus Scaptomyza, are large and easy to decipher. Yoon et al. (1975) examined the phylogenetic relationships between four species of the subgenus Engiscaptomyza using polytene chromosome banding patterns. Their work suggests that S. reducta (Hawai���i) and S. crassifemur (Maui Nui) are sister taxa. Scaptomyza inflata (O���ahu) is basal to this group and S. ampliloba (Kaua���i) is the most basal member of this subgenus. KEY TO SPECIES OF THE SUBGENUS Engiscaptomyza Kaneshiro 10. Mesonotum vittate���.................................................................................................. 11 �� Mesonotum lacking vittae.......................................................................................... 15 11. Distinct infuscations along margin of wing, veins and crossveins, median portions of most cells are hyaline; front tarsi of male with numerous erect dorsal setae. Hawai���i......................................................................................................... undulata (Grimshaw) �� Wings faintly and evenly infuscated, no distinct markings........................................ 12 12. Surstylus sharply concave, with distinct lobe at apex which forms a ���C��� shape; dorsal lobe of hypandrium narrowly pointed, with indistinct protrusion (see Kaneshiro, 1969; Fig. 1) .............................................................................................. ampliloba (Hardy) �� Surstylus less concave, straighter in profile............................................................... 13 13. Protrusion on dorsal lobe of hypandrium somewhat short, indistinct............................. .......................................................................................................... inflata (Kaneshiro) �� Protrusion on dorsal lobe of hypandrium elongate, finger��like................................. 14 14. Front femur swollen, rufous in color; scutellum with additional setulae inserted on margin between anterior and posterior scutellar setae; ovipositor blunt, with ca. 5 elongate setulae along margin. Maui, Moloka���i............................ crassifemur (Grimshaw) �� Front femur swollen (not as distinctly as above), entirely black in color; scutellum only bears anterior and posterior scutellar setae; ovipositor blunt, with only a single elongate setula present at apex. Maui, Moloka���i........................... nasalis (Grimshaw) 15.Legs entirely yellow,except for brown apex of tarsus;leg segments short and thick. Hawai���i reducta (Hardy) �� Femora almost entirely brown, tinged faintly with black and narrowly yellow at the bases and apices; tibia yellow with a broad brown band at apex and basal 1/3 of segment; tarsi yellow, tinged faintly with brown on apical segments. Maui.............................................................................................................................. lonchoptera (Hardy), Published as part of O'Grady, Patrick, Bonacum, James, Desalle, R. & Val, Francisca Do, 2003, The placement of Engiscaptomyza, Grimshawomyia, and Titanochaeta, three clades of endemic Hawaiian Drosophilidae (Diptera), pp. 1-16 in Zootaxa 159 (1) on pages 9-10, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.159.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/5014208, {"references":["Kaneshiro, K. Y. (1969) The Drosophila crassifemur group of species in a new subgenus. University of Texas Publications, 6918, 79 - 83.","Nishida, G. M. (2002) Hawaiian Terrestrial Arthropod Checklist. Fourth edition. Bishop Museum Technical Report, 22, iv + 313 p.","Yoon, J. S., Resch K., Wheeler, M. R., & Richardson, R. H. (1975) Evolution in Hawaiian Drosophilidae: chromosomal phylogeny of the Drosophila crassifemur complex. Evolution, 29, 249 - 256."]}

Background Polytene chromosome banding patterns have long been used by Drosophila evolutionists to infer degree of relatedness among taxa. Recently, nucleotide sequences have preempted this traditional method. We place the classical Drosophila evolutionary biology tools of polytene chromosome inversion analysis in a phylogenetic context and assess their utility in comparison to nucleotide sequences. Results A simultaneous analysis framework was used to examine the congruence of the chromosomal inversion data with more recent DNA sequence data in four Drosophila species groups – the melanogaster, virilis, repleta, and picture wing. Inversions and nucleotides were highly congruent with one another based on incongruence length difference and partitioned Bremer support values. Inversion phylogenies were less resolved because of fewer numbers of characters. Partitioned Bremer supports, corrected for the number of characters in each matrix, were higher for inversion matrices. Conclusions Polytene chromosome data are highly congruent with DNA sequence data and, when placed in a simultaneous analysis framework, are shown to be more information rich than nucleotide data.

We describe techniques by which mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) restriction site information can be obtained for up to 16 different restriction endonucleases on individual Hawaiian Drosophila, in particular D. silvestris and D. heteroneura. We have constructed mtDNA restriction site maps for a total of forty-eight wild caught genomes of both species, from seven major collecting sites on the island of Hawaii. Levels of variability are, in general, high in D. silvestris (p of Ewens et al., 1981 = 0.0486) and lower in D. heteroneura (p = 0.0327). Measures of population subdivision using Nei's Gst indicate that about 50-60 per cent of the observed variability is due to interdemic subdivision. In accordance, populations within a species show a much lower level of variability, however some populations harbour individuals that are very divergent from the rest of their conspecifics at the same locality. We review two possible mechanisms that could explain the presence of these divergent individuals, hybridisation and the effects of stochastic branching processes.

International audience

The origin of multicellular animals and how multicellularity evolved is one of those difficult and delicate biological problems that has been pondered over for centuries. This book attempts to summarize some of the more recent results in phylogenetics and developmental biology that address the evolution of key innovations in metazoans. The book has three main sections. The first section contains five chapters that address the phylogenetic issues involving this part of the tree of life. Even though modern genome technology has made it possible to study these issues using a vast information database the elucidation of the relationships in this part of the tree of life continues to be elusive. The second section of the book addresses some of the more prominent questions concerning the developmental biology of metazoan evolution. The topics in this section focus on nervous system development, sensory organ development and developmental systems. The third section of the book focuses on the evolution of pattern and process in the incredible forms of life that we call Metazoa. The topics covered in this part of the book include the evolution of life histories, ecological associations and the evolution of biogeochmical aspects of metazoa. The book has over 40 illustrations and an up to date bibliography of over 500 references. Each chapter concludes with a set of questions for study and discussion to assist instructors and students in delving more deeply into the topics covered by the seventeen chapters in the book. Table of Contents Introduction: A Phylogenomic Journey Through the Animal Tree of Life: Key Innovations in the Evolution of Metazoa; B. Schierwater and R. DeSalle Tangled Roots in the Animal Tree of Life Putting Animals in their Place Within a Context of Eukaryotic Innovations; D. Vazquez, L. Wegener Parfrey and L.A. Katz Elucidating Animal Phylogeny: Advances in Knowledge and Forthcoming Challenges; K.M. Kocot, J.T. Cannon and K.M. Halanych Key Transitions in Animal Evolution: a Mitochondrial DNA Perspective; D.V. Lavrov Pending Issues in Development and Phylogeny of Arthropods; J.S. Deutsch The Earliest Animals: From Genes to Transitions The Pre-nervous System and Beyond—Poriferan Milestones in the Early Evolution of the Metazoan Nervous System; M. Nickel A Key Innovation in Evolution, the Emergence of Neurogenesis: Cellular and Molecular Cues from Cnidarian Nervous Systems; B. Galliot, M. Quiquand, M. Miljkovic-Licina and S. Chera From Cnidaria to "Higher Metazoa" in One Step; F. Boero and S. Piraino Basal Metazoan Sensory Evolution; D.K. Jacobs, D.A. Gold, N. Nakanishi, D. Yuan, A. Camara, S.A. Nichols and V. Hartenstein Cnidarian Gene Expression Patterns and the Origins of Bilaterality—Are Cnidarians Reading the Same Game Plan as "Higher" Animals?; E.E. Ball, D.M. de Jong, B. Schierwater, C. Shinzato, D.C. Hayward and D.J. Miller Key Transitions During Animal Phototransduction Evolution: Co-duplication as a Null Hypothesis for the Evolutionary Origins of Novel Traits; T.H. Oakley and D.C. Plachetzki Vertebrate Hox Genes and Specializations in Mammals; C. Kappen Pattern and Process at the Base of the Metazoan Tree of Life Field Biology of Placozoans (Trichoplax): Distribution, Diversity, Biotic Interactions; V. Buchsbaum Pearse and O. Voigt Trichoplax and Placozoa: One of the Crucial Keys to Understanding Metazoan Evolution; B. Schierwater et al. A Food’s-Eye View of Animal Transitions; N.W. Blackstone Lost in Transition: The Biogeochemical Context of Animal Origins; E. Gaidos Redefining Stem Cells and Assembling Germ Plasm: Key Transitions in the Evolution of the Germ Line; J. Srouji and C. Extavour Questions and Discussion