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Ore deposits in the Balkan Peninsula were intensively mined for silver and other metals in the Roman and medieval periods. Coinage mainly issued by tribal groups between the early 5th and the end of the 3rd century BCE provides indirect evidence that silver extraction predates the Roman conquest of the region. However, identification of centers of past metal production and reconstruction of large-scale silver fluxes can only be achieved using a comprehensive geochemical database of potential ores. Here, we present high-precision Pb–Ag–S isotope data and trace element systematics for 128 ore samples from 36 mineralizations from the Balkans as well as one semi-reacted ore from a settlement site (=archaeological sample) and one andesite analyzed as a whole-rock and as a K-feldspar separate. Each ore site was selected for its geological characteristics and documented or assumed historical and/or archaeological significance. The reported data reconstruct the formation of ore bodies from large pre-existing Pb stocks derived from upper crustal sources, modified by tectonic and metasomatic processes, and eventually remobilized by magmatic activity. Lead isotope maps establish distinct isotopic domains which are linked to geological characteristics and enable an enhanced assessment of potential metal sources in provenance studies. Silver isotopes underscore the importance of hypogene ores of hydrothermal origin comprising galena or sulfosalt minerals as the main silver carrier phases and they can circumscribe ore deposits to those actually used as bullion sources of ancient coinage. We show that the Ag isotope signatures and the silver content of the argentiferous galena-rich ores in the Kopaonik and Zletovo districts (Serbia, Kosovo, and North Macedonia), combined with field evidence for historical metal production and geographical considerations, make them the most likely sources of silver which could have been used for coinage issued by mints in the interior of the Balkans.

In this thesis I propose a new paradigm to explain the transformation of Athens during the sixth century B.C.E. I argue that economic change continually promoted sub-elite groups who became sufficiently strong to demand a share of legal and political rights. The pace of change increased during the century as trade, commerce, and silver mining monetised the economy and brought Athens into broader contact with the outside world. Politicians responded in accordance with circumstances and their own interests. Solon, Peisistratos and Kleisthenes were particularly important because their experiences abroad and personalities led them to try novel solutions. The end of the century saw the collective rise in prosperity of a large proportion of the population, notably farmers, manufacturers, traders and miners. Leaders among these people worked with officials who had been increasingly involved in administering Attica during the tyranny. They used their organisational skills and detailed local knowledge to design and implement the democratic changes under Kleisthenes. -- Central to my theory is a re-evaluation of Solon and the ancient attribution to him of a comprehensive 'code' of laws. I demonstrate that laws were written in response to need over time, and only reinscribed on numbered axones at the end of the fifth century. I argue against the claim that weights were used as de facto coinage in Solonian legislation, and suggest a requantification of the system of weights and measures. In my view, coinage was introduced by Peisistratos with a suite of denominations for internal use in Attica. Exploitation and export of newly-accessed silver was the reason for the subsequent change of type to 'owls', not democracy. Silver mining also helped foster an embryonic market economy with significant social and economic consequences. These insights allow me to provide a new reading of key political events with a focus on identifying the groups and people involved.

International audience; Over the last 60 years, much analytical research has sought to determine the ore sources of ancient Greek silver artefacts. Lead isotopic analysis has played a key role in this endeavor. While most studies so far have limited their search to places mentioned in historical sources, the present study takes a different approach by first identifying Ag-bearing ore sources in the Aegean world based on their geological characteristics and then using Pb isotopes to determine whether they were exploited in antiquity. To this end, we have geolocated, sampled, and measured high-precision Pb isotopic compositions of 17 Ag-bearing mineralizations in Greece for which we have evidence of ancient mining activity, and a further 10 exhibiting minor Ag occurrences that may also have been exploited in ancient times. We found that Pb model ages provide better discrimination of ore sources than the more conventional plots of raw Pb isotope data. Our study establishes Lavrion, northeast Chalkidiki, Pangaeon, Thasos, Siphnos, Palaea Kavala, Angistron, and south Euboea as the most important ancient silver mining districts in Greece. Two previously undiscovered ancient mining areas in Pelion and in the Kroussia mountain range are also documented. The latter may be identified with ancient Mount Dysoron, from which King Alexander I of Macedon reportedly extracted the fabulous sum of a talent of silver per day. For the first time, we isotopically differentiate some of the mining districts in Thraco-Macedonia, and show that the mines of Thasos include geologically different silver-bearing ore sources. We further identify the hitherto unrealized importance of Euboean silver mines and demonstrate that they isotopically overlap those of Siphnos, with major implications for our understanding of ancient Greek history.

[Extract] What is the future of numismatics? Will it be restricted to collecting and die studies by a shrinking number of passionate collectors and specialists, or can it offer something more? As academic historians, we see unlimited potential for coins to ‘value-add’ in numerous areas of research. The number of ongoing major digitising projects for public and private coin collections demonstrates that numismatists agree. The life work of Emeritus Professor John Melville-Jones AM, the honorand of this volume (Fig. 1), does much to illustrate the point.

International audience; The reasons why the Western Mediterranean, especially Carthage and Rome, resisted monetization relative to the Eastern Mediterranean are still unclear. Here, we address this question by combining lead and silver isotope abundances in silver coinage from the Aegean, Magna Graecia, Carthage, and the Roman Republic. The clear relationships observed between 109 Ag/ 107 Ag and 208 Pb/ 206 Pb reflect mixing of silver ores or silver objects with lead metal used for cupellation. The combined analysis of Ag and Pb isotopes reveal important information about the technology of smelting. The Greek world extracted Ag and Pb from associated ores, whereas, on the Iberian Peninsula, Carthaginians and Republican era Romans applied Phoenician cupellation techniques and added exotic Pb to lead-poor Ag ores. Massive silver re-cupellation is observed in Rome during the Second Punic War. After defeating the Carthaginians and the Macedonians in the late 2 nd century BCE, the Romans brought together the efficient, millennium-old techniques of silver extraction of the Phoenicians, who considered this metal a simple commodity, with the monetization of economy introduced by the Greeks.

Archaic owl tetradrachms form an important subset of our research into Early Attic coinage. This paper analyses their physical characteristics and silver content based on measurements of 424 owl tetradrachms and 81 owl obols for comparison with fractional coinage. The paper proposes that the tetradrachms were deliberately minted at their ideal standard weight and with a consistently high purity of silver to make them acceptable as an export coinage. This stood in contrast to the preceding ‘Wappenmünzen’ and contemporary fractional coinage both of which were minted primarily for use in the domestic market place. Test-cutting in antiquity appears to have been carried out as a matter of routine checking primarily by overseas end-users, rather than on suspicion of individual coins.

[Extract] In a landmark 1970 symposium organised in London, later published as Methods of Chemical and Metallurgical Investigation of Ancient Coinage (Hall and Metcalf 1972), invited scientists were asked to suggest how modern scientific techniques could be applied to numismatic problems. In particular, they were asked to explain the capabilities of their instruments and analytical methods and to provide up-to-date bibliographies. Ironically, perhaps the most startling findings announced in the symposium came from a study of Merovingian coins in the Sutton Hoo hoard using specific gravity (Kent 1972), a technique which can be traced back to Archimedes. Not all the speakers were scientists; there were also numismatists and historians discussing the implications of using information gained from scientific analysis, and exploring in some cases what they saw as deficiencies. Perhaps the most important outcome of this symposium was the momentum which led the Royal Numismatic Society to form a standing committee to further the application of scientific methods in numismatics, and the creation of a publication series in which to present current research, Metallurgy in Numismatics.

This introduction presents an overview of the key concepts covered in the subsequent chapters of this book. The book suggests that it is the quintessential nature of humans to communicate with each other. Good communications, bad communications, miscommunications, or no communications at all have driven everything from world events to the most mundane of interactions. An awareness of a communication's context is what gives that communication efficacy. The main theme of the book is communication: how it was done, what intended message was communicated, and the relationships/identities that were established through communication between people. The context of situation is really the total environment in which a communication unfolds. Delimiting registers is neither simple nor wholly objective. Still, ancient registers are increasingly possible to articulate based on social-semiotic considerations due to the growing amount of evidence gained through archaeological excavation and, unfortunately in some cases, looting.

This paper presents fresh interpretations of 160 lead isotope analyses of Archaic Greek coins on the OXALID database based on new data for ore sources in Spain, Sardinia, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Turkey and Iran. It demonstrates that the earliest minters used far more diverse metal sources than the literary evidence suggests, and engaged in what could be described as opportunistic minting. Some currently held views on the importance of Siphnian silver, Peisistratid access to Thracian silver, the sources of Aiginetan, Thasian and Chian silver, the use of gold and tin as tracers for Siphnian and Lavrion silver, and the mixing of silver are challenged. Thoughts are offered on how archaic minting drove intensification of mining.

Hacksilber facilitated trade and transactions from the beginning of the second millennium BCE until the late fourth century BCE in the southern Levant. Here we demonstrate the use of new, data-driven statistical approaches to interpret high-precision Pb isotope analysis of silver found in archaeological contexts for provenance determination. We sampled 45 pieces of Hacksilber from five hoards (Megiddo Area H, Eshtemoa, Tel Dor, ʿEn Gedi, and Tel Miqne-Ekron) and combined our data with recent literature data for the same hoards plus five more (Beth Shean, Ashkelon, Tell Keisan, Tel ʿAkko, and ʿEn Ḥofez) thus covering silver from the Late Bronze Age III (c.1200 BCE) to the end of the Iron Age IIC (586 BCE). Samples were taken by applying a new minimally destructive sampling technique. Lead was extracted using anion-exchange chromatography, and Pb isotopic compositions were measured by MC-ICP-MS. Data were treated using a new clustering method to identify statistically distinct groups of data, and a convex hull was applied to identify and constrain ore sources consistent with the isotopic signature of each group. Samples were grouped by minimizing variance within isotopic clusters and maximizing variance between isotopic clusters. We found that exchanges between the Levant and the Aegean world continued at least intermittently from the Late Bronze Age through to the Iron Age III, demonstrated by the prevalence of Lavrion (Attica), Macedonia, Thrace (northern Greece), southern Gaul (southern France), and Sardinia as long-lived major silver sources. Occasional exchanges with other west Mediterranean localities found in the isotopic record demonstrate that even though the Aegean world dominated silver supply during the Iron Age, exchanges between the eastern and the western Mediterranean did not altogether cease. The mixture of silver sources within hoards and relatively low purity of silver intentionally mixed with copper and arsenic suggest long-term hoarding and irregular, limited supply during the Iron Age I.