Search

The target article promotes an enactive approach to human behaviour, highlighting the phenomenology of agent-environment coupling, and is rooted in the course of experience from pre-reflective self-consciousness. In our comment we debate the idea that experience does equate with subjectivity. Such an equation reflects an organismic asymmetry locating behavioural organisation in the subjective mind, interacting with the objective world. In contrast, an ecological realist perspective considers that human behaviour and experience should be captured at the ecological level of analysis, requiring investigation of eco-physical variables. To achieve this aim, researchers need to avoid organismic asymmetries, and instead study performance variables that underpin the symmetry of the agent-environment system. We also debate the place of language and the fact that verbalisation does not equate with subjective experience. According to James Gibson, language focuses on ‘knowledge about the environment’ and not ‘knowledge of the environment’ needed by any autonomous, self-regulating organism, making their way in the world. Last, the target paper promotes the course of in-formation to complement the course of experience, without fully explaining how to deal with potential incongruence and divergence between findings emerging from verbalisation and behavioural aspects of realizing a given activity (the difference between ‘what we say, what we do’). We conclude by considering how our ecological perspective could offer pathways for the presented enactive approach to go beyond the course of in-formation.

The use of the term problem-solving in relation to movement behavior is an often-broached topic within kinesiology. Here we present a clear rationale for the concept of problem-solving, specifically pertaining to the skilled organization of movement behaviors in sport performance, and the respective processes that underpin it, conceptualized within an ecological dynamics framework. The movement behavior that emerges in sport can be viewed as a problem-solving activity for the athlete, where integrated movement solutions are underpinned by intertwined processes of perception, cognition, and action. This movement problem-solving process becomes functionally aligned with sport performance challenges through a tight coupling to relevant information sources in the environment, which specify affordances offered to the athlete. This ecological perspective can shape our lens on how movements are coordinated and controlled in the context of sport, influencing practical approaches utilized towards facilitating dexterity of athletes. These ideas imply how coaches could set alive movement problems for athletes to solve within practice environments, where they would be required to continuously (re)organize movement system degrees of freedom in relation to dynamic and emergent opportunities, across diverse, complex problems. Through these experiences, athletes could become attuned, intentional, and adaptable, capable of (re)organizing a behavioral fit to performance problems in context—essentially allowing them to become one with the movement problem.

Sport science has increasingly witnessed use of contemporary ecological approaches to athlete development, preparation, and skill acquisition, providing alternatives to traditional pedagogical approaches. Here we examine an ecological perspective on transferring theory into coaching practice for athlete self-regulation and performance preparation, by presenting the case example of one lead coach and three athletes representing Team GB in the sport of Canoe Slalom at the 2020 Olympics in Tokyo. The aims of this case exemplar are: 1) to offer insights into how an ecological dynamics rationale supported integration of nonlinear pedagogy and (skill) training periodisation, underpinning athlete preparation for world class Canoe Slalom competition; and 2), to provide a first-hand perspective on transfer of theory to support self-regulation, skill learning, and performance preparation in high-performance sport. In the case example, the ‘Periodisation of Skill Training’ framework (i.e., termed ‘PoST’ framework) for venue specific preparation at the Tokyo Olympics was applied and adapted. Principles of co-design, the Constraints-Led Approach, perception-action coupling and representative learning design were embedded within collaborative application of the framework across a support team including athlete, coach and psychologist. To conclude, facilitating athlete self-regulation is highlighted in practical exemplars to support paddlers to cope with the dynamic environments in canoe slalom.

For practitioners working in high performance sport, the primary goal is to ensure that precious preparation time is utilised efficiently, effectively and resourcefully to provide maximal impact on the performance potential of the individual or team. To achieve this goal, there is a need to treat athlete learning and development as an integral part of performing with a key focus on increasingly aligning the relation between the perfomer(s) and their environment, which may differ according to practice and performance (Button et al., 2020b). This article critiqued the weaknesses and limitations of traditional learning approaches in sport, seeking to highlight instead the value of adopting a contemporary ecological dynamics perspective, informing how practitioners should design practice to support a greater connectivity between the contexts of performance and learning.

Background: Specific learning experiences are vital for athletes to continuously interact with developing knowledge of the performance environment, through the refined design of representative learning contexts (ecological paradigm), and appropriate didactical interventions (constructivist paradigm). Although there is a well-established relationship between tactical knowledge (TK) and tactical behaviours (TB), research has investigated the development of both separately. Thus, the inter-dependency between knowledge and behaviour has been inferred, but not contextually interpreted in a process-oriented analysis of performance. Purpose: Through an insider action-research (AR) design, and adopting a mix-methods approach, this study aimed to: (i) investigate in-depth the influence of a constructivist-ecological pedagogical intervention on developing players’ TK and TB; (ii) explore effects of integrated tactical knowledge and behaviour on competitive performance. Participants and settings: Fifteen female volleyballers participated in this study. An insider-AR (first author assumed the dual role of coach and researcher) was conducted from September 2017 to June 2018. In total, four AR-cycles were completed. A mixed-method approach was used to obtain distinct, but complementary, data on the impact of a constructivist-ecological pedagogical intervention on development of players’ TK and TB. Qualitative data were used to explore the development of TK, while TB was analysed through quantitative methods. Data collection: Qualitative data on the coach’s perceptions were collected using a reflexive diary and field notes, while players’ perceptions were recorded through four semi-structured focus-group interviews, one per AR-cycle. Quantitative data from four official competitive matches, one per AR-cycle, were analysed. Players’ positional coordinates were used to calculate the synchronisation tendencies of lateral blocking and defensive lines through the cluster-phase method. Data analysis: Qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis, in which inductive procedures deepened understanding of the development of the players’ TK. A 4 (matches) x 1 (court direction) repeated-measures ANOVA was used to analyse quantitatively the differences in the mean cluster-amplitude values of lateral blocking and defensive lines between matches. Main findings: The unique integration of constructivist and ecological principles scaffolded the development of players’ TK and TB. Players evolved from an initial stage in which they verbally described competitive game scenarios (using knowledge about environment), to an endpoint where they revealed superior tactical understanding and action intentionality. Increments in tactical complexity favoured the development of TK and TB in a long-term analysis. However, over the short-term, TB was reduced. The development of players’ TK (supported by interactions yielding knowledge of practice and performance environments) shaped a basis for the acquisition of co-adaptive TB during competitive performance. Practical implications: First, sport practitioners could benefit from combining strategies from different theoretical approaches so that they can satisfy the daily needs of athletes in practice. Second, we advise coaches to adopt didactical and representative learning designs, grounded on video analysis and the co-creation of game-plans. Third, the data imply that time and the continuous exposure of players to meaningful and representative practice tasks in learning environments are needed so that athletes can enrich their tactical behaviours, using knowledge of the performance environment to interact effectively its constraints.

Cycling is a foundational movement skill which represents an important motor milestone to achieve in children’s lives. The use of a bicycle with training wheels is the most common approach for learning how to cycle, although some evidence suggests that this approach is counterproductive. Underpinned by an ecological perspective and Constraints-led approach, this study investigated whether learning how to ride a conventional bicycle in childhood can be shaped by the specific task constraints related to the kind of training bicycle used beforehand (i.e., balance bike or bicycle with training wheels). This comparison could guide pedagogical practice to facilitate children’s learning in cycling and their independent riding. The Learning to Cycle intervention programme was introduced to 25 children (M = 6.08±1.19 years) who could not previously cycle, divided into two treatment groups. One group trained with a bicycle with training wheels (BTW) and another with a balance bicycle (BB) for six sessions, followed by four sessions with a conventional bicycle (CB). The acquisition of independent cycling was assessed, based on established cycle learning milestone achievements, without help: (i) self-launch, (ii) riding for at least 10 (consecutive) metres, and (iii), braking. To be considered an independent rider, participants needed to achieve all these milestones, without any external help. During the CB sessions, the number of sessions that each child needed to acquire each learning milestone and independent cycling were recorded. The programme led to a success rate of 88% for achievement of independent cycling on a conventional bicycle, differentiated by 100% success in the BB group and 75% in the BTW group. The BB participants were significantly faster in learning to self-launch, ride, brake, and cycle independently, compared to BTW participants. The Learning to Cycle programme was effective for facilitating learning in children from three years of age onwards. Using the BB instead of the BTW seems to lead to a more effective and efficient acquisition of independent cycling at earlier ages.

Cycling is a foundational movement skill which represents an important motor milestone to achieve in children’s lives. The use of a bicycle with training wheels is the most common approach for learning how to cycle, although some evidence suggests that this approach is counterproductive. Underpinned by an ecological perspective and Constraints-led approach, this study investigated whether learning how to ride a conventional bicycle in childhood can be shaped by the specific task constraints related to the kind of training bicycle used beforehand (i.e., balance bike or bicycle with training wheels). This comparison could guide pedagogical practice to facilitate children’s learning in cycling and their independent riding. The Learning to Cycle intervention programme was introduced to 25 children (M = 6.08±1.19 years) who could not previously cycle, divided into two treatment groups. One group trained with a bicycle with training wheels (BTW) and another with a balance bicycle (BB) for six sessions, followed by four sessions with a conventional bicycle (CB). The acquisition of independent cycling was assessed, based on established cycle learning milestone achievements, without help: (i) self-launch, (ii) riding for at least 10 (consecutive) metres, and (iii), braking. To be considered an independent rider, participants needed to achieve all these milestones, without any external help. During the CB sessions, the number of sessions that each child needed to acquire each learning milestone and independent cycling were recorded. The programme led to a success rate of 88% for achievement of independent cycling on a conventional bicycle, differentiated by 100% success in the BB group and 75% in the BTW group. The BB participants were significantly faster in learning to self-launch, ride, brake, and cycle independently, compared to BTW participants. The Learning to Cycle programme was effective for facilitating learning in children from three years of age onwards. Using the BB instead of the BTW seems to lead to a more effective and efficient acquisition of independent cycling at earlier ages.

In this article we challenge deterministic practices on learning and development, biased towards individual properties of learners (e.g., genetic endowment) and knowledge acquisition (e.g., internal representations). These traditional approaches typically fail to account for environmental influences which may interact in unique ways with relevant personal characteristics of learners. To challenge these deterministic approaches, we present a conceptual framework that combines niche construction theory and ecological dynamics, positioning behaviour at the ecological level of analysis where highly skilled behaviour emerges from the individual-environment system. To substantiate this conceptual framework, we investigate the insights and experiential knowledge of professional sports coaches on their practice designs. Results revealed how athletes and coaches value the capacity to modify athlete-environment interactions influencing opportunities for action in a practice context. This novel conceptual framework can inform the designs of contemporary learning and development practices that positively influence the evolution of skilled behaviours in different individuals.

This inquiry explores a theoretical question, of applied practical relevance in fields like sport science, relating to how people come to know the performance landscapes they inhabit, and the dynamic opportunities for action they present. Here, we propose that how people come to know their performance landscapes, and how they learn to correspond with available affordances in them, is through dwelling. More specifically, through dwelling, people learn to resonate with the rhythms of information and affordances of a performance landscape, entangling with them to successfully find their way through the tasks, problems and challenges taken up with. To theoretically support our analysis, we draw on James Gibson’s different conceptualisations of knowledge, and Tim Ingold’s perspectives of enskilment–bringing practical applicability to our discussion by weaving in various ethnographic accounts of the growth of enskiled inhabitant knowledge. Through these transdisciplinary insights, we show that it is by asking questions, sharing stories, and following up lines of inquiry that people grow into their enskiled knowledge of places they inhabit.

In high-performance sport, a multidisciplinary approach is proposed as essential in providing an effective environment to service all aspects of athlete development and performance. A Department of Methodology (DoM) conceptualisation, based on an ecological dynamics rationale, provides a framework for coaches, sport scientists and support practitioners to collaboratively conceptualise integrated team and athlete development practices. Previous research has highlighted several principles for holistic system development of athletes, such as importance of embracing non-linearity, prioritising athlete–environment relations, and identifying constraints on performance. While sports organisations are continuously shaped by constraints operating at multiple scales, the overarching purpose of this paper is to highlight specifically how macro-scale ecological constraints may shape integrated practice design from a transdisciplinary perspective. To achieve this aim, we expound on the DoM concept by drawing on Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of human development, to elaborate on how interconnected system components, simultaneously operating at multiple scales, continuously contextualise athlete development experiences. Further, we seek to sensitise coaches, scientists, and support staff to the ‘big-picture of athlete development’, discussing how sports organisations may adapt to the ubiquitous influences of macro-scale ecological systems (e.g., national associations and sport governing bodies). Finally, numerous association football (soccer) examples, and a recent case report about developments within the German FA (DFB) and youth football structure, attempt to make theoretical ideas tangible and understandable for coaching practitioners in the field.

Simulation studies have demonstrated that the hip and ankle joints form a task-specific synergy during the downstroke in maximal cycling to enable the power produced by the hip extensor muscles to be transferred to the crank. The existence of the hip-ankle synergy has not been investigated experimentally. Therefore, we sought to apply a modified vector coding technique to quantify the strength of the hip-ankle moment synergy in the downstroke during short-term maximal cycling at a pedalling rate of 135 rpm. Twelve track sprint cyclists performed 3 × 4 s seated sprints at 135 rpm, interspersed with 2 × 4 s seated sprints at 60 rpm on an isokinetic ergometer. Data from the 60 rpm sprints were not analysed in this study. Joint moments were calculated via inverse dynamics, using pedal forces and limb kinematics. The hip-ankle moment synergy was quantified using a modified vector coding method. Results showed, for 28.8% of the downstroke the hip and ankle moments were in-phase, demonstrating the hip and ankle joints tend to work in synergy in the downstroke, providing some support findings from simulation studies of cycling. At a pedalling rate of 135 rpm the hip-phase was most frequent (42.5%) significantly differing from the in- (P = 0.044), anti- (P < 0.001), and ankle-phases (P = 0.004), demonstrating hip-dominant action. We believe this method shows promise to answer research questions on the relative strength of the hip-ankle synergy between different cycling conditions (e.g., power output and pedalling rates).

The purpose of this scoping review was to (1) enhance theoretical understanding and applications in practice of representative learning design (2) summarise current findings in a meaningful and practical way (3) identify gaps in the literature and (4) develop understanding to help bridge the gap between research and practice

Coordinating dynamic interceptive actions in sports like badminton requires skilled performance in getting the racket into the right place at the right time. For this reason, the strategic movement and placement of one's feet, or footwork, is an important part of competitive performance. Developing an automated, efficient, and economical method to record individual movement characteristics of players is critical and can benefit athletes and motor control specialists. Here, we propose new methods for recording data on the footwork of individual badminton players, in which deep learning is used to obtain image coordinates (2D) of their shoes and binocular positioning to reconstruct the 3D coordinates of the shoes. Results show that the final positioning accuracy is 74.7%. Using the proposed methods, we revealed inter-individual adaptations in the footwork of several participants during competitive performance. The data provided insights on how individual participants coordinated footwork to intercept the projectile, by varying the distance traveled on court and jump height. Compared with visual observations by biomechanists and motor control specialists, the proposed methods can obtain quantitative data, provide analysis and evaluation of each participant's performance, revealing personal characteristics that could be targeted to shape the individualized training programs of players to refine their badminton footwork.

Evidence investigating skilled performers in sport suggests that a prominent component of skilled behavior is, in part, due to the development of more effective and efficient perception-action couplings. Further, the Quiet Eye has emerged as a useful tool in which to investigate how skilled performers regulate action through fixating on visual information within the immediate environment before the onset of a goal directed movement. However, only a few contributions to the literature have attempted to examine the individual variations within these Quiet Eye fixations in skilled participants. In this case study, we first asked how goalkeepers control their actions, via the Quiet Eye in a representative task. Second, we sought to examine whether inter- and intra- individual differences in the Quiet Eye are present in skilled goalkeepers as a functional component of skilled performance. Results were consistent with previous work on football goalkeepers, with QE fixations located at the ball and visual pivot. However, individual analysis reveals different Quiet Eye gaze patterning between (inter) and within (intra) the goalkeepers during saving actions. To conclude, we have provided a descriptive case study in attempt to understand the Quiet Eye behaviors of a skilled sample of professional goalkeepers. In doing so we have suggested how adaptive variability, founded upon an Ecological Dynamics framework, may provide further insight into the function of the Quiet Eye.

Currently, there are numerous definitions and interpretations of the concept of physical literacy within the literature, potentially leading to a lack of consensus as to how to employ it in practice. In this position paper, we argue that ecological dynamics is well positioned to provide a theoretical framework that will bring clarity as well as support the operationalization of physical literacy in practice. We argue that this theoretical conceptualization provides an excellent framework for understanding physical literacy because of its emphasis on the person–environment relationship. More directly, we propose the establishment of an individual-environment fit across varied movement contexts over a lifespan as a central tenet of the physical literacy concept. We conclude by discussing how sports practitioners, national governing bodies, public health, and education sectors could re-design sport, exercise, and physical activity environments, in accordance with an ecological dynamics rationale to enhance physical literacy.

The value of talent development programmes, aimed at nurturing children and adolescents into high performance sport, has been widely questioned. However, there seems to be some agreement that the general concept of talent development is not the issue, rather, the problems exist in the design, implementation, and management of these systems. These challenges were exemplified in 2021 across British Rugby League Football, where the academy system came under scrutiny from the National Governing Body and many commentators from within the sport. In this paper, we argue that without a theoretical framework to guide learning in development, further operational guidance will continue to foster many of the practices that lead to criticism within the academic literature and from key stakeholders. Situated within the theoretical framework of ecological dynamics, we propose six principles to guide talent development practices of youth athletes; 1) athlete development is non-linear; 2) academies should be development focused, not performance driven; 3) the importance of generality and specificity of practice in athlete development; 4) the implementation of contemporary pedagogical models; 5) skilled intentionality, and; 6) an ethos of amateurism in a professional academy. We encourage practitioners to consider implementing these principles to realign talent development programmes, thereby supporting fun, collaboration, inclusion, and a long-term enjoyment of movement and sports participation.

The last few decades have witnessed a surge of interest in adventure sports, and has led to an emerging research focus on these activities. However, recent conceptual analyses and scientific reviews have highlighted a major, fundamental question that remains unresolved: what constitutes an adventure sport. Despite several proposals for definitions, the field still seems to lack a shared conceptualization. This deficit may be a serious limitation for research and practice, restricting the development of a more nuanced theoretical explanation of participation and practical implications within and across adventure sports. In this article, we address another crucial question, how can adventure sports be better understood for research and practice? We briefly summarize previous definitions to address evident confusion and a lack of conceptual clarity in the discourse. Alternatively, we propose how an ecological perspective of human behaviors, such as interactions with the environment, may provide an appropriate conceptualization to guide and enhance future research and practice, using examples from activities such as freeride skiing/snowboarding, white-water kayaking, climbing, mountaineering and the fields of sport science, psychology and avalanche research and education. We draw on ecological dynamics as a transdisciplinary approach to discuss how this holistic framework presents a more detailed, nuanced, and precise understanding of adventure sports.

The aim of the present study was to examine how team composition of players with different roles constrains individual and collective tactical behaviours, and ball possession effectiveness, during competitive 3 vs 3 small-sided and conditioned games (SSCGs) in youth soccer players. Fifteen male players (under 15 yrs, mean age 13.2 1.03 years, mean years of practice: 4.2 1.10 years) from the same club participated in this study. For analysis purposes, on advice from the coaching staff, participants were categorised according to their main team performance role, resulting in sub-samples of 5 defenders (centre-backs ¼ 2 and full- backs ¼ 3), 7 midfielders (central midfielders ¼ 3 and wide midfielders ¼ 4) and 3 attackers (forwards). In order to assess participant tactical behaviours, a notational analysis system was created with four categories: i) team behaviours, ii) individual players’ offensive actions, iii) individual players’ defensive actions, and iv), ball possession effectiveness. Analysis of players’ offensive actions revealed that the team composed only of midfielders revealed a higher frequency of diagonal and vertical passes in relation to the attackers’ team. In offensive individual actions, the attackers’ team revealed more dribbles in relation to the teams of defenders and midfielders. Analysis of ball possession effectiveness revealed that the team of defenders achieved higher values of shots on goal compared to the team of midfielders. These findings exemplified how playing role constrains the emergence of different collective behaviours and individual actions in 3 vs 3 SSCGs.

This study aimed to examine the influence of families and football academies on the pathway to football expertise of Brazilian players. Built on the ‘contextualised skill acquisition research’ framework, data were generated through the triangulation of three methods: contextual analysis; participant-observation, and; interviews, with the latter providing substantial information for the present study. Data were organised according to the mesosystemic context of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of human development, thematically analysed, and explained through the perspective of the framework of the ecological dynamics. The findings highlight how players navigate through their environment in relation to the social, emotional, psychological, and educational support they receive, as well as in relation to the clubs' supply of quality football training programmes. The findings provide the basis for practical recommendations to help clubs and their coaches in the task of developing and nurturing their human talent.

An Ecological Dynamics-based pedagogy demands that the educator or practitioner operates at the behavioural scale of analysis with the capacities and dispositions of the child, such as cognitions, preferred ways of moving, emotions and perceptual skills supporting functional movements. Where the educator or practitioner is able to create an enriched environment which is purposefully designed to provide feel and freedom experienced with unstructured play, but overlayed with careful learning design, it can provide a powerful platform to support children's physical literacy. Physical literacy has been slowly adopted as a worldwide social movement to support long-term health and well-being of our children and young people. A growing number of countries are investing in physical literacy and are integrating this into public policy in education and health to help children become more physically active. Competitive, backyard games promote the conditions to facilitate the development of holistic physical literacy skills and propose that they should become a key feature of talent development programmes.

The fossil record is scarce and incomplete by nature. Animals and ecological processes devour soft tissue and important bony details over time and, when the dust settles, we are faced with a patchy record full of variation. Fossil taxa are usually defined by craniodental characteristics, so unless postcranial bones are found associated with a skull, assignment to taxon is unstable. Naming a locomotor category based on fossil bone morphology by analogy to living hominoids is not uncommon, and when no single locomotor label fits, postcrania are often described as exhibiting a ‘mosaic’ of traits. Here, we contend that the unavoidable variation that characterises the fossil record can be described far more rigorously based on extensive work in human neurobiology and neuroanatomy, movement sciences and motor control and biomechanics research. In neurobiology, degeneracy is a natural mechanism of adaptation allowing system elements that are structurally different to perform the same function. This concept differs from redundancy as understood in engineering, where the same function is performed by identical elements. Assuming degeneracy, structurally different elements are able to produce different outputs in a range of environmental contexts, favouring ecological robusticity by enabling adaptations. Furthermore, as degeneracy extends to genome level, genetic variation is sustained, so that genes which might benefit an organism in a different environment remain part of the genome, favouring species’ evolvability.

Background: Traditionally, Physical Education (PE) has adopted a multi-skills approach, where children generally engage in decontextualised practice of sport techniques to develop specific movement skills and facilitate sports participation. This approach has been critiqued for having a weak conceptual and philosophical justification, and a lack of empirical proof of its educational value. The SAMPLE-PE research project set out to challenge this by creating two PE curricula distinguished by contrasting theories of motor learning: information processing theory and ecological dynamics. While both approaches have shown promise in enhancing children’s movement skills, to date, there has been little consideration of their impact on the motivational climate of primary PE lessons. This study explored to what extent traditional PE, ecological dynamics, and information processing theory-based approaches create empowering and disempowering motivational climates when viewed through a self-determination and achievement goal theory lens.\ud \ud Method: Forty-four PE lessons were video recorded and coded by two trained researchers using the Multidimensional Motivational Climate Observation System. ANOVA, MANOVA and Bonferroni post-hoc tests were run to explore differences in data on motivational climate under the three different pedagogical approaches.\ud \ud Results: The group taught with concepts from ecological dynamics (referred to as Ecological) displayed a significantly lower disempowering motivational climate in comparison to the group taught with a basis in information processing theory (referred to as IPT) and the traditional PE groups. The ecological group revealed significantly more autonomy support than the traditional PE and the IPT group. The IPT group methods provided significantly more structure than traditional PE and the ecological group.\ud \ud Conclusion: The findings of this study have shown how the approach taken in delivering PE in primary schools may differentially affect motivational climates. Results imply that underpinning PE with theories of motor learning provides differing, viable and beneficial alternatives to create positive learning environments, compared to traditional PE practices.

In this paper, we consider how youth sport and (talent) development environments have adapted to, and are constrained by, social and cultural forces. Empirical evidence from an 18-month ethnographic case study highlights how social and cultural constraints influence the skill development and psychological wellbeing of young football players. We utilized novel ways of knowing (i.e., epistemologies) coupled to ecological frameworks (e.g., the theory of ecological dynamics and the skilled intentionality framework). A transdisciplinary inquiry was used to demonstrate that the values which athletes embody in sports are constrained by the character of the social institutions (sport club, governing body) and the social order (culture) in which they live. The constraining character of an athlete (talent) development environment is captured using ethnographic methods that illuminate a sociocultural value-directedness toward individual competition. The discussion highlights how an emphasis on individual competition overshadows opportunities (e.g., shared, and nested affordances) for collective collaboration in football. Conceptually, we argue that these findings characterize how a dominating sociocultural constraint may negatively influence the skill development, in game performance, and psychological wellbeing (via performance anxiety) of young football players in Stockholm. Viewing cultures and performance environments as embedded complex adaptive systems, with human development as ecological, it becomes clear that microenvironments and embedded relations underpinning athlete development in high performance sports organizations are deeply susceptible to broad cultural trends toward neoliberalism and competitive individualism. Weaving transdisciplinary lines of inquiry, it is clarified how a value directedness toward individual competition may overshadow collective collaboration, not only amplifying socio-cognitive related issues (anxiety, depression, emotional disturbances) but simultaneously limiting perceptual learning, skill development, team coordination and performance at all levels in a sport organization.

Dynamics of Skill Acquisition, Second Edition, provides an analysis of the processes underlying human skill acquisition. As the first text to outline the multidisciplinary ecological dynamics framework for understanding movement behavior, this heavily updated edition stays on the cutting edge, with principles of nonlinear pedagogy and methodologies from the constraints-led approach. Students and practitioners across a variety of professions—including coaches, physical educators, trainers, and rehabilitation specialists—will appreciate the applied focus of this second edition. Movement models throughout the text provide examples for visualizing task constraints and enhancing the study and understanding of movement behavior. Athletes and sports teams are presented as specific complex adaptive systems, with information on designing learning environments and adapting programs to foster skill development. Readers will learn the historical evolution of dynamical systems theory and the ecological dynamics framework. These foundational concepts illustrate the integration between intentional action, cognition, and decision making and their effects on performance and behavior. Complex theoretical concepts are explained in simple terms and related to practice, focusing on the implications of the work of pioneering researchers such as Nikolai Bernstein, Egon Brunswik, James Gibson, Scott Kelso, and Karl Newell. Case studies written by practitioners contain specific examples of the ecological dynamics framework in action, bringing theory to life. By learning how to identify and manipulate key constraints that influence learning skilled behavior, readers will gain insight into practice designs for creating positive learning experiences that enable individuals to develop and learn functional movements. Throughout the book, learning features guide readers through material with clear direction and focus to improve understanding. Spotlight on Research sidebars provide detailed descriptions of important studies to connect theory, research, and application. Lab activities teach application skills beyond the content, ensuring reader understanding. In addition, chapter objectives, self-test questions, and Key Concept sidebars highlight important concepts in each chapter. With the study of human movement now bridging many disciplines, including motor development, psychology, biology, and physical therapy, Dynamics of Skill Acquisition, Second Edition, provides a timely analysis of the ecological dynamics framework and presents a comprehensive model for understanding how coordination patterns are assembled, controlled, and acquired. The theoretical roots and development of the ecological dynamics framework provide application strategies for all people with an interest in movement coordination and control. AUDIENCE An upper-level undergraduate or graduate textbook for courses in human movement and skill acquisition. A professional reference for movement practitioners and scientists, including teachers, coaches, trainers, physical educators, physical therapists, rehabilitation specialists, sport scientists, psychologists, biomechanists, sport analysts and physiologists.

Functional proprioceptive information is required to allow an individual to interact with the environment effectively for everyday activities such as locomotion and object manipulation. Specifically, research suggests that application of compression garments could improve proprioceptive regulation of action by enhancing sensorimotor system noise in individuals of different ages and capacities. However, limited research has been conducted with samples of elderly people thus far. This study aimed to examine acute effects of wearing knee-length socks (KLS) of various compression levels on ankle joint position sense in community-dwelling, older adults. A total of 26 participants (12 male and 14 female), aged between 65 and 84 years, were randomly recruited from local senior activity centres in Singapore. A repeated-measures design was used to determine effects on joint position awareness of three different treatments–wearing clinical compression socks (20–30 mmHg); wearing non-clinical compression socks (< 20 mmHg); wearing normal socks, and one control condition (barefoot). Participants were required to use the dominant foot to indicate 8 levels of steepness (2.5°, 5°, 7.5°, 10°, 12.5°, 15°, 17.5°, and 20°), while standing on a modified slope box, in a plantar flexion position. Findings showed that wearing clinical compression KLS significantly reduced the mean absolute errors compared to the barefoot condition. However, there were no significant differences observed between other KLS and barefoot conditions. Among the KLS of various compression levels, results suggested that only wearing clinical compression KLS (20–30 mmHg) improved the precision of estimation of ankle joint plantar flexion movement, by reducing absolute performance errors in elderly people. It is concluded that wearing clinical compression KLS could potentially provide an affordable strategy to ameliorate negative effects of ageing on the proprioception system to enhance balance and postural control in community-dwelling individuals. peerReviewed

The chapter provides a suitable framework to structure developmental movement programmes fostering physical literacy. The Athletic Skills Model (ASM) strives to educate and develop each individual's capabilities to seek out and engage in lifelong physical activity and sport participation by maintaining a balance between performance, fitness, and health across the lifespan. For that purpose, the ASM is underpinned by ecological dynamics and advocates three major avenues to enrich movement experiences, namely, to make use of the concentric approach to movement skills acquisition. Secondly, to exploit the transferability of movements through the use of the concepts of Multisports and Donorsports. Thirdly, to create challenging learning environments that foster adaptability and encourage greater diversification of movement capabilities from a constraints-led perspective.

In specialist sports coaching, the type and manner of augmented information that the coach chooses to use in communicating and training with individual athletes can have a significant impact on skill development and performance. Informed by insights from psychology, pedagogy, and sport science, this position paper presents a practitioner-based approach in response to the overarching question: When, why, and how could coaches provide information to athletes during coaching interventions? In an ecological dynamics rationale, practice is seen as a search for functional performance solutions, and augmented feedback is outlined as instructional constraints to guide athletes’ self-regulation of action in practice. Using the exemplar of team sports, we present a Skill Training Communication Model for practical application in the context of the role of a specialist coach, using a constraints-led approach (CLA). Further based on principles of a non-linear pedagogy and using the recently introduced Periodization of Skill Training (PoST) framework, the proposed model aims to support practitioners’ understanding of the pedagogical constraints of feedback and instruction during practice. In detail, the PoST framework’s three skill development and training stages work to (1) directly impact constraint manipulations in practice designs and (2) indirectly affect coaches’ choices of external (coach-induced) information. In turn, these guide practitioners on how and when to apply different verbal instruction methodologies and aim to support the design of effective skill learning environments. Finally, several practical guidelines in regard to sports coaches’ feedback and instruction processes are proposed.

In the current sporting landscape, it is not uncommon for professional sport teams and organizations to employ multidisciplinary sport science support teams. In these teams and organizations, a “head of performance” may manage a number of sub-discipline specialists with the aim of enhancing athlete performance. Despite the best intentions of multidisciplinary sport science support teams, difficulties associated with integrating sub-disciplines to enhance performance preparation have become apparent. It has been suggested that the problem of integration is embedded in the traditional reductionist method of applied sport science, leading to the eagerness of individual specialists to quantify progress in isolated components. This can lead to “silo” working and decontextualized learning environments that can hinder athlete preparation. To address this challenge, we suggest that ecological dynamics is one theoretical framework that can inform common principles and language to guide the integration of sport science sub-disciplines in a Department of Methodology. The aim of a Department of Methodology would be for group members to work within a unified conceptual framework to (1) coordinate activity through shared principles and language, (2) communicate coherent ideas, and (3) collaboratively design practice landscapes rich in information (i.e., visual, acoustic, proprioceptive and haptic) and guide emergence of multi-dimensional behaviors in athlete performance.

Supplemental material, sj-pdf-1-spo-10.1177_1747954120943073 for Understanding key constraints and practice design in Rugby Union place kicking: Experiential knowledge of professional kickers and experienced coaches by Chris Pocock, Neil E Bezodis, Keith Davids, Ross Wadey and Jamie S North in International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching

International audience

© Copyright © 2019 Vaughan, Mallett, Davids, Potrac and López-Felip. The challenge of developing creativity to enhance human potential is conceptualized as a multifaceted wicked problem due to the countless interactions between people and environments that constitute human development, athletic skill, and creative moments. To better comprehend the inter-relatedness of ecologies and human behaviors, there have been increasing calls for transdisciplinary approaches and holistic ecological models. In this paper we explore an ecological dynamics rationale for creativity, highlighting the conceptual adjacency of key concepts from transdisciplinarity, dynamic systems theory, ecological psychology and social-cognitive psychology. Our aim is to extend the scope of ecological dynamics and contextualize the application of non-linear pedagogy in sport. Foregrounding the role of sociocultural constraints on creative behaviors, we characterize the athlete-environment system as an ecological niche that arises from, and simultaneously co-creates, a form of life. We elaborate the notion that creative moments, skill and more generally talent in sport, are not traits possessed by individuals alone, but rather can be conceived as properties of the athlete-environment system shaped by changing constraints. This re-conceptualization supports a pedagogical approach predicated on notions of athletes and sports teams as complex adaptive systems. In such systems, continuous non-linear interactions between system components support the exploration of fluent and flexibly creative performance solutions by athletes and sports teams. The implications for practice suggest that cultivating a constellation of constraints can facilitate adaptive exploration of novel affordances (opportunities/invitation for action), fostering creative moments and supporting creative development in athletes. Future models or frameworks for practice contend that pedagogies should emerge from, and evolve in, interaction with the sociocultural context in which practitioners and athletes are embedded.

The aim of this study was to examine effects of a task intervention on kinematic synergies in catching. Participants were young children (5.58 ± 0.52 years) with the lowest scores on two-hand catching, according to assessments with the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) and were allocated into two groups. The constraints group took part in an 8-week intervention, whereas the control group experienced a typical physical education. Both groups were assessed with motor development and kinematic coordination measures with a catching task with a ball thrown from 2 m distance. Kinematic variables were recorded using a wireless motion capture system. A principal component analysis (PCA) was used to measure the kinematic synergies formed among active body parts. Two synergies that emerged in catching were mainly utilised for “reaching” and “catching” the ball. The control group tended to re-organise the majority of active body parts into two functional units in all phases, whereas the constraints group adapted their active parts into functional units according to the requirement of the novel movement in the transfer task. The findings of this study suggested that task constraints could facilitate object control by re-organisation of active body parts into functional synergies to achieve successful performance.

The aim of this paper is to provide explanation and discussion on how unconventional socio-cultural constraints influence the development of skill and expertise of Brazilian football players. On this basis, the central question of this research is this: What are the influential environmental constraints on the development of perceptual-motor skills and expertise of Brazilian football players? The epistemological and methodological assumptions of the “contextualised skill acquisition research” (CSAR) (see Uehara et al., 2014) are used as an underpinning framework for data collection and organization of material. Drawing upon the notion of ethnographic strategies of inquiry for generating and analyzing data, we used qualitative methods such as contextual analysis, participant-observation, and open-ended interviews. At the micro-level of Brazilian society “pelada” emerges as one of the socio-cultural constraints that shapes the talent of Brazilian football players by influencing the development of their perceptual-motor expertise.

Modified versions of tennis, such as Tennis Play and Stay and Mini Tennis (MT) have been implemented around the world to influence children’s performance behaviours. However, it is not clear how modified versions of tennis shape match-play behaviours. We analysed 1010 match-play points, across four stages of tennis (MT Red, MT Orange, MT Green and Full Ball), to investigate effects of playing MT on children’s match-play performance behaviours (Fitzpatrick, Davids & Stone, 2017). MT Red and MT Orange rallies lasted longer than Full Ball rallies, indicating that MT can afford children more opportunities to develop their skills. Also, MT players performed a higher percentage of forehands and lower percentage of backhands than Full Ball players, which may signal an unintended, imbalanced effect of practice modifications on skill development. Findings suggested that coaches should consider possible effects on match-play behaviours when designing modified practice environments for young players.

Currently, there are various definitions for extreme sports and researchers in the field have been unable to advance a consensus on what exactly constitutes an ‘extreme’ sport. Traditional theory-led explanations, such as edgeworks, sensation seeking and psychoanalysis, have led to inadequate conceptions. These frameworks have failed to capture the depth and nuances of experiences of individuals who refute the notions of risk-taking, adrenaline- and thrill-seeking or death-defiance. Instead, participants are reported to describe experiences as positive, deeply meaningful and life-enhancing. The constant evolution of emerging participation styles and philosophies, expressed within and across distinguishable extreme sport niches, or forms of life, and confusingly dissimilar definitions and explanations, indicate that, to better understand cognitions, perceptions and actions of extreme sport participants, a different level of analysis to traditional approaches needs to be emphasized. This paper develops the claim that a more effective definition, reflecting the phenomenology, and framework of an ecological dynamics rationale, can significantly advance the development of a more comprehensive and nuanced future direction for research and practice. Practical implications of such a rationale include study designs, representative experimental analyses and developments in coaching practices and pedagogical approaches in extreme sports. Our position statement suggests that extreme sports are more effectively defined as emergent forms of action and adventure sports, consisting of an inimitable person-environment relationship with exquisite affordances for ultimate perception and movement experiences, leading to existential reflection and self-actualization as framed by the human form of life. peerReviewed

Place kicks in Rugby Union present valuable opportunities to score points outside the spatiotemporal dynamics of open play but are executed under varying performance constraints. We analysed effects of specific task constraints and relevant contextual factors on place kick performance in the 2015 Rugby Union World Cup. Data were collected from television broadcasts for each place kick. In addition to kick outcomes, contextual factors, including time of the kick in the match, score margin at the time of the kick, and outcome of the kicker’s previous kick, were recorded. Effects of spatial task constraints were analysed for each kick, using distance (m) and angle (°) of the kick to the goalposts. A binomial logistic regression model revealed that distance from, and angle to, the goalposts were significant predictors of place kick outcome. Furthermore, the success percentage of kickers who missed their previous kick was 7% lower than those who scored their previous kick. Place kick success percentage in the 10 minutes before half-time was 8% lower than the mean tournament success percentage, which was 75% (95% CI 71% to 78%). The highest kick success percentage was recorded when scores were level (83%; 95% CI 72% to 91%). Our data highlighted how subtle changes in task constraints and contextual factors can influence performance outcomes in elite performers in international competition. Fluctuations in place kick success suggested that individual constraints, such as thoughts, emotions, and fatigue, induced during competition, could interact with perceptions to influence emergent performance behaviours.

The Athletic Skills Model offers an alternative to dominant talent development theories in the form of holistic broad-based movement education, focusing on health and wellbeing. It places the emphasis on ‘physical intelligence’ – including attributes such as agility, flexibility and stability – through adaptable and varied training programmes, creating a skilled athlete before introducing sport specialization.The book sets out the scientific underpinnings of the ASM before going on to offer practical guidance on the content of the programme, how to adapt and vary the programme, and how to apply the approach to different age groups and sports. The ASM’s application in the youth development programme at AFC Ajax is explored in depth, before a future of talent development with an emphasis on athletic, rather than sport-specific, expertise is imagined.The Athletic Skills Model introduces an important and timely challenge to conventional wisdom in talent development and is a fascinating read for any upper-level student or researcher interested in youth development, skill acquisition, motor learning or sports coaching, and any coaches wanting to refresh their approach to talent development.

This study examined effects of dual task constraints on intra-limb coordination patterns in samples of stroke survivors and able-bodied individuals during treadmill walking. Twenty participants (Npatients=10 and Nable-bodied=10) participated voluntarily in this study and lower limb coordination data were collected using a 3D motion analysis system whilst walking on a treadmill. The dual task constraints involved using cognitive activity (subtracting random numbers) during treadmill walking. Continuous relative phase was used to assess coordination between the foot-shank and shank-thigh complexes during the gait cycle. Statistical analysis revealed a significant reduction of variability in lower limb coordination patterns (foot-shank and shank-thigh couplings) among stroke patients, compared to able-bodied counterparts, regardless of whether they were dual-tasking. Findings revealed that gait retraining in stroke survivors should emphasize increasing variability in inter-joint coordination, regardless of the nature of task.

Systematic reviews of balance control have tended to only focus on the effects of single lower-limb stimulation strategies, and a current limitation is the lack of comparison between different relevant stimulation strategies. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to examine evidence of effects of different lower-limb sensory stimulation strategies on postural regulation and stability. Moderate- to high- pooled effect sizes (Unbiased (Hedges’ g) standardized mean differences (SMD) = 0.31–0.66) were observed with the addition of noise in a Stochastic Resonance Stimulation Strategy (SRSS), in three populations (i.e., healthy young adults, older adults, and individuals with lower-limb injuries), and under different task constraints (i.e., unipedal, bipedal, and eyes open). A Textured Material Stimulation Strategy (TMSS) enhanced postural control in the most challenging condition— eyes-closed on a stable surface (SMD = 0.61), and in older adults (SMD = 0.30). The Wearable Garments Stimulation Strategy (WGSS) showed no or adverse effects (SMD = -0.68– 0.05) under all task constraints and in all populations, except in individuals with lower-limb injuries (SMD = 0.20). Results of our systematic review and meta-analysis revealed that future research could consider combining two or more stimulation strategies in intervention treatments for postural regulation and balance problems, depending on individual needs. peerReviewed

Study aim: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of training while wearing socks differing in compression level (clinical, sub-clinical, regular) on performance of static and dynamic balancing and agility tasks in healthy, physically active people. We sought to understand whether socks with different compression properties supported postural regulation and agility task performance by enhancing somatosensory perception, unskewed by specific age range effects. Material and methods: Participants comprised 61 adults aged 18–75 years, divided into three groups (two experimental groups wearing clinical or sub-clinical level compression socks, and one control group wearing regular non-compression socks during training). An 8-week (2 × 1h per week) intervention programme was administered to train static and dynamic balance and postural control, leg strength and agility. Results: A mixed model ANOVA revealed no differences in static and dynamic balance and postural control and agility performance between clinical, sub-clinical, and control groups before and after training. All groups significantly improved their test performance, suggesting that training had some benefit on motor performance. Conclusions: These results raised interesting questions requiring further investigation to examine the effects of wearing socks (with and without different levels of compression) on motor behaviours in specific groups of elderly vs. young participants, in physically active vs. less physically active people, and in performance settings outside standardized laboratory tests to study applications in natural performance environments. peerReviewed

In this commentary, we respond to suggestions in previous Quiet Eye (QE) research that future work is needed to understand how theories of ecological psychology and nonlinear dynamics might frame empirical and practical work. We raise questions on the assumptions behind an information processing explanation for programming of parameters such as duration, onsets and offsets of QE, and we concur with previous calls for more research considering how visual search behaviours, such as QE, emerge under interacting personal, task and environmental constraints. However, initial work needs to frame a more general ecological dynamics explanation for QE, capturing how a process-oriented approach is needed to address how perceived affordances and adaptive functional variability might shape emergent coordination tendencies, including QE, in individual performers.

An evolutionary psycho-biological perspective on competitiveness dynamics is presented, focusing on continuous behavioral co-adaptations to constraints that arise in performance environments. We suggest that an athlete’s behavioral dynamics are constrained by circumstances of competing for the availability of resources, which once obtained offer possibilities for performance success. This defines the influence of the athlete-environment relationship on competitiveness. Constraining factors in performance include proximity to target areas in team sports and the number of other competitors in a location. By pushing the athlete beyond existing limits, competitiveness enhances opportunities for co-adaptation, innovation and creativity, which can lead individuals toward different performance solutions to achieve the same performance goal. Underpinned by an ecological dynamics framework we examine whether competitiveness is a crucial feature to succeed in team sports. Our focus is on intra-team competitiveness, concerning the capacity of individuals within a team to become perceptually attuned to affordances in a given performance context which can increase their likelihood of success. This conceptualization implies a re-consideration of the concept of competitiveness, not as an inherited trait or entity to be acquired, but rather theorizing it as a functional performer-environment relationship that needs to be explored, developed, enhanced and maintained in team games training programs.

This study sought to understand the role of sport-specific play and practice in the development of adolescent team sport athletes in the Finnish sports development system. Participants were male, 15-year-old soccer (n ¼ 141), ice hockey (n ¼ 204), and basketball (n ¼ 96) players, divided into three groups based on the amount of sport-specific play and practice experienced during childhood. Data were collected with sport-specific inventories of practice history, tactical skills, psychological skills, and sport-specific skill test. Results showed that athletes with more sport-specific play and practice during childhood had more sport-specific play and practice during adolescence, better technical, tactical, and psychological skills, and were more likely to be selected for national youth teams at the age of 15. Data highlighted the importance of sport-specific play and practice during childhood in the development of team sport performers in the Finnish athlete development system. peerReviewed