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The quantification of large-scale leaf-age-dependent leaf area index has been lacking in tropical and subtropical evergreen broadleaved forests (TEFs), despite the recognized importance of leaf age in influencing leaf photosynthetic capacity in this biome. Here, we simplified the canopy leaves of TEFs into three age cohorts (i.e., young, mature, and old, with different photosynthesis capacities; i.e., Vc,max) and proposed a novel neighbor-based approach to develop the first gridded dataset of a monthly leaf-age-dependent leaf area index (LAI) product (referred to as Lad-LAI) at 0.25∘ spatial resolution over the continental scale during 2001–2018 from satellite observations of sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) that was reconstructed from MODIS and TROPOMI (the TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument). The new Lad-LAI products show good performance in capturing the seasonality of three LAI cohorts, i.e., young (LAIyoung; the Pearson correlation coefficient of R=0.36), mature (LAImature; R=0.77), and old (LAIold; R=0.59) leaves at eight camera-based observation sites (four in South America, three in subtropical Asia, and one in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)) and can also represent their interannual dynamics, validated only at the Barro Colorado site, with R being equal to 0.54, 0.64, and 0.49 for LAIyoung, LAImature, and LAIold, respectively. Additionally, the abrupt drops in LAIold are mostly consistent with the seasonal litterfall peaks at 53 in situ measurements across the whole tropical region (R=0.82). The LAI seasonality of young and mature leaves also agrees well with the seasonal dynamics of the enhanced vegetation index (EVI; R=0.61), which is a proxy for photosynthetically effective leaves. Spatially, the gridded Lad-LAI data capture a dry-season green-up of canopy leaves across the wet Amazonian areas, where mean annual precipitation exceeds 2000 mm yr−1, consistent with previous satellite-based analyses. The spatial patterns clustered from the three LAI cohorts also coincide with those clustered from climatic variables over the whole TEF region. Herein, we provide the average seasonality of three LAI cohorts as the main dataset and their time series as a supplementary dataset. These Lad-LAI products are available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.21700955.v4 (Yang et al., 2022).

This registration contains the data described in the article "Development of a freeze-dried, heat-stable influenza subunit vaccine formulation".

Made available in DSpace on 2021-06-25T11:16:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2021-01-01 Agence Nationale Des Parcs Nationaux Centre for International Forestry Research Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (COLCIENCIAS) David and Lucile Packard Foundation European Space Agency Leverhulme Trust Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Goiás European Research Council Belgian Federal Science Policy Office Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) National Science Foundation Natural Environment Research Council Royal Society National Geographic Society Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) Tropical forests are the most diverse and productive ecosystems on Earth. While better understanding of these forests is critical for our collective future, until quite recently efforts to measure and monitor them have been largely disconnected. Networking is essential to discover the answers to questions that transcend borders and the horizons of funding agencies. Here we show how a global community is responding to the challenges of tropical ecosystem research with diverse teams measuring forests tree-by-tree in thousands of long-term plots. We review the major scientific discoveries of this work and show how this process is changing tropical forest science. Our core approach involves linking long-term grassroots initiatives with standardized protocols and data management to generate robust scaled-up results. By connecting tropical researchers and elevating their status, our Social Research Network model recognises the key role of the data originator in scientific discovery. Conceived in 1999 with RAINFOR (South America), our permanent plot networks have been adapted to Africa (AfriTRON) and Southeast Asia (T-FORCES) and widely emulated worldwide. Now these multiple initiatives are integrated via ForestPlots.net cyber-infrastructure, linking colleagues from 54 countries across 24 plot networks. Collectively these are transforming understanding of tropical forests and their biospheric role. Together we have discovered how, where and why forest carbon and biodiversity are responding to climate change, and how they feedback on it. This long-term pan-tropical collaboration has revealed a large long-term carbon sink and its trends, as well as making clear which drivers are most important, which forest processes are affected, where they are changing, what the lags are, and the likely future responses of tropical forests as the climate continues to change. By leveraging a remarkably old technology, plot networks are sparking a very modern revolution in tropical forest science. In the future, humanity can benefit greatly by nurturing the grassroots communities now collectively capable of generating unique, long-term understanding of Earth's most precious forests. Resumen: Los bosques tropicales son los ecosistemas más diversos y productivos del mundo y entender su funcionamiento es crítico para nuestro futuro colectivo. Sin embargo, hasta hace muy poco, los esfuerzos para medirlos y monitorearlos han estado muy desconectados. El trabajo en redes es esencial para descubrir las respuestas a preguntas que trascienden las fronteras y los plazos de las agencias de financiamiento. Aquí mostramos cómo una comunidad global está respondiendo a los desafíos de la investigación en ecosistemas tropicales a través de diversos equipos realizando mediciones árbol por árbol en miles de parcelas permanentes de largo plazo. Revisamos los descubrimientos más importantes de este trabajo y discutimos cómo este proceso está cambiando la ciencia relacionada a los bosques tropicales. El enfoque central de nuestro esfuerzo implica la conexión de iniciativas locales de largo plazo con protocolos estandarizados y manejo de datos para producir resultados que se puedan trasladar a múltiples escalas. Conectando investigadores tropicales, elevando su posición y estatus, nuestro modelo de Red Social de Investigación reconoce el rol fundamental que tienen, para el descubrimiento científico, quienes generan o producen los datos. Concebida en 1999 con RAINFOR (Suramérica), nuestras redes de parcelas permanentes han sido adaptadas en África (AfriTRON) y el sureste asiático (T-FORCES) y ampliamente replicadas en el mundo. Actualmente todas estas iniciativas están integradas a través de la ciber-infraestructura de ForestPlots.net, conectando colegas de 54 países en 24 redes diferentes de parcelas. Colectivamente, estas redes están transformando nuestro conocimiento sobre los bosques tropicales y el rol de éstos en la biósfera. Juntos hemos descubierto cómo, dónde y porqué el carbono y la biodiversidad de los bosques tropicales está respondiendo al cambio climático y cómo se retroalimentan. Esta colaboración pan-tropical de largo plazo ha expuesto un gran sumidero de carbono y sus tendencias, mostrando claramente cuáles son los factores más importantes, qué procesos se ven afectados, dónde ocurren los cambios, los tiempos de reacción y las probables respuestas futuras mientras el clima continúa cambiando. Apalancando lo que realmente es una tecnología antigua, las redes de parcelas están generando una verdadera y moderna revolución en la ciencia tropical. En el futuro, la humanidad puede beneficiarse enormemente si se nutren y cultivan comunidades de investigadores de base, actualmente con la capacidad de generar información única y de largo plazo para entender los que probablemente son los bosques más preciados de la tierra. Resumo: Florestas tropicais são os ecossistemas mais diversos e produtivos da Terra. Embora uma boa compreensão destas florestas seja crucial para o nosso futuro coletivo, até muito recentemente os esforços de medições e monitoramento foram amplamente desconexos. É essencial formarmos redes para obtermos respostas que transcendem fronteiras e horizontes de agências financiadoras. Neste estudo nós mostramos como uma comunidade global está respondendo aos desafios da pesquisa de ecossistemas tropicais, com equipes diversas medindo florestas, árvore por árvore, em milhares de parcelas monitoradas à longo prazo. Nós revisamos as maiores descobertas científicas deste trabalho, e mostramos também como este processo está mudando a ciência de florestas tropicais. Nossa abordagem principal envolve unir iniciativas de base a protocolos padronizados e gerenciamento de dados a fim de gerar resultados robustos em escalas ampliadas. Ao conectar pesquisadores tropicais e elevar seus status, nosso modelo de Rede de Pesquisa Social reconhece o papel-chave do produtor dos dados na descoberta científica. Concebida em 1999 com o RAINFOR (América do Sul), nossa rede de parcelas permanentes foi adaptada para África (AfriTRON) e Sudeste asiático (T-FORCES), e tem sido extensamente reproduzida em todo o mundo. Agora estas múltiplas iniciativas estão integradas através de uma infraestrutura cibernética do ForestPlots.net, conectando colegas de 54 países de 24 redes de parcelas. Estas iniciativas estão transformando coletivamente o entendimento das florestas tropicais e seus papéis na biosfera. Juntos nós descobrimos como, onde e por que o carbono e a biodiversidade da floresta estão respondendo às mudanças climáticas, e seus efeitos de retroalimentação. Esta duradoura colaboração pantropical revelou um grande sumidouro de carbono persistente e suas tendências, assim como tem evidenciado quais direcionadores são mais importantes, quais processos florestais são mais afetados, onde eles estão mudando, seus atrasos no tempo de resposta, e as prováveis respostas das florestas tropicais conforme o clima continua a mudar. Dessa forma, aproveitando uma notável tecnologia antiga, redes de parcelas acendem faíscas de uma moderna revolução na ciência das florestas tropicais. No futuro a humanidade pode se beneficiar incentivando estas comunidades basais que agora são coletivamente capazes de gerar conhecimentos únicos e duradouros sobre as florestas mais preciosas da Terra. Résume: Les forêts tropicales sont les écosystèmes les plus diversifiés et les plus productifs de la planète. Si une meilleure compréhension de ces forêts est essentielle pour notre avenir collectif, jusqu'à tout récemment, les efforts déployés pour les mesurer et les surveiller ont été largement déconnectés. La mise en réseau est essentielle pour découvrir les réponses à des questions qui dépassent les frontières et les horizons des organismes de financement. Nous montrons ici comment une communauté mondiale relève les défis de la recherche sur les écosystèmes tropicaux avec diverses équipes qui mesurent les forêts arbre après arbre dans de milliers de parcelles permanentes. Nous passons en revue les principales découvertes scientifiques de ces travaux et montrons comment ce processus modifie la science des forêts tropicales. Notre approche principale consiste à relier les initiatives de base à long terme à des protocoles standardisés et une gestion de données afin de générer des résultats solides à grande échelle. En reliant les chercheurs tropicaux et en élevant leur statut, notre modèle de réseau de recherche sociale reconnaît le rôle clé de l'auteur des données dans la découverte scientifique. Conçus en 1999 avec RAINFOR (Amérique du Sud), nos réseaux de parcelles permanentes ont été adaptés à l'Afrique (AfriTRON) et à l'Asie du Sud-Est (T-FORCES) et largement imités dans le monde entier. Ces multiples initiatives sont désormais intégrées via l'infrastructure ForestPlots.net, qui relie des collègues de 54 pays à travers 24 réseaux de parcelles. Ensemble, elles transforment la compréhension des forêts tropicales et de leur rôle biosphérique. Ensemble, nous avons découvert comment, où et pourquoi le carbone forestier et la biodiversité réagissent au changement climatique, et comment ils y réagissent. Cette collaboration pan-tropicale à long terme a révélé un important puits de carbone à long terme et ses tendances, tout en mettant en évidence les facteurs les plus importants, les processus forestiers qui sont affectés, les endroits où ils changent, les décalages et les réactions futures probables des forêts tropicales à mesure que le climat continue de changer. En tirant parti d'une technologie remarquablement ancienne, les réseaux de parcelles déclenchent une révolution très moderne dans la science des forêts tropicales. À l'avenir, l'humanité pourra grandement bénéficier du soutien des communautés de base qui sont maintenant collectivement capables de générer une compréhension unique et à long terme des forêts les plus précieuses de la Terre. Abstrak: Hutan tropika adalah di antara ekosistem yang paling produktif dan mempunyai kepelbagaian biodiversiti yang tinggi di seluruh dunia. Walaupun pemahaman mengenai hutan tropika amat penting untuk masa depan kita, usaha-usaha untuk mengkaji dan mengawas hutah-hutan tersebut baru sekarang menjadi lebih diperhubungkan. Perangkaian adalah sangat penting untuk mencari jawapan kepada soalan-soalan yang menjangkaui sempadan dan batasan agensi pendanaan. Di sini kami menunjukkan bagaimana sebuah komuniti global bertindak balas terhadap cabaran penyelidikan ekosistem tropika melalui penglibatan pelbagai kumpulan yang mengukur hutan secara pokok demi pokok dalam beribu-ribu plot jangka panjang. Kami meninjau semula penemuan saintifik utama daripada kerja ini dan menunjukkan bagaimana proses ini sedang mengubah bidang sains hutan tropika. Teras pendekatan kami memberi tumpuan terhadap penghubungan inisiatif akar umbi jangka panjang dengan protokol standar serta pengurusan data untuk mendapatkan hasil skala besar yang kukuh. Dengan menghubungkan penyelidik-penyelidik tropika dan meningkatkan status mereka, model Rangkaian Penyelidikan Sosial kami mengiktiraf kepentingan peranan pengasas data dalam penemuan saintifik. Bermula dengan pengasasan RAINFOR (Amerika Selatan) pada tahun 1999, rangkaian-rangkaian plot kekal kami kemudian disesuaikan untuk Afrika (AfriTRON) dan Asia Tenggara (T-FORCES) dan selanjutnya telah banyak dicontohi di seluruh dunia. Kini, inisiatif-inisiatif tersebut disepadukan melalui infrastruktur siber ForestPlots.net yang menghubungkan rakan sekerja dari 54 negara di 24 buah rangkaian plot. Secara kolektif, rangkaian ini sedang mengubah pemahaman tentang hutan tropika dan peranannya dalam biosfera. Kami telah bekerjasama untuk menemukan bagaimana, di mana dan mengapa karbon serta biodiversiti hutan bertindak balas terhadap perubahan iklim dan juga bagaimana mereka saling bermaklum balas. Kolaborasi pan-tropika jangka panjang ini telah mendedahkan sebuah sinki karbon jangka panjang serta arah alirannya dan juga menjelaskan pemandu-pemandu perubahan yang terpenting, di mana dan bagaimana proses hutan terjejas, masa susul yang ada dan kemungkinan tindakbalas hutan tropika pada perubahan iklim secara berterusan di masa depan. Dengan memanfaatkan pendekatan lama, rangkaian plot sedang menyalakan revolusi yang amat moden dalam sains hutan tropika. Pada masa akan datang, manusia sejagat akan banyak mendapat manfaat jika memupuk komuniti-komuniti akar umbi yang kini berkemampuan secara kolektif menghasilkan pemahaman unik dan jangka panjang mengenai hutan-hutan yang paling berharga di dunia. Instituto de Ecología Regional (IER) Universidad Nacional de Tucumán (UNT) Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias Universidad Nacional de Jujuy James Cook University (JCU) CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation) School of Land & Food University of Tasmania CSIRO Tropical Forest Research Centre Independent Researcher Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science (TESS) College of Marine and Environmental Sciences James Cook University Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science College of Science and Engineering James Cook University University of the Sunshine Coast University of York Flamingo Land Ltd. 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Department of Geography National University of Singapore Departamento de Biología y Geología Física y Química inorgánica Universidad Rey Juan Carlos Real Jardín Botánico – CSIC Departamento de Biología Área de Botánica Universidad Autónoma de Madrid Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN-CSIC) Centre for Agricultural Research in Suriname (CELOS) Stockholm Environment Institute Department of Plant Ecology and Evolution Uppsala University Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre InfoFlora Conservatoire et Jardin Botanique Geneve National Chung Hsing University Sokoine University of Agriculture Naturalis Biodiversity Center Wageningen University Forest Ecology and Forest Management Group Tropenbos International Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics University of Amsterdam Bureau Waardenburg BV Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences Van der Hout Forestry Consulting Utrecht University, Domplein 29 Wageningen University Plant Ecology and Nature Conservation Group Data for Sustainability Department of Zoology Entomology & Fisheries Sciences Makerere University The Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC) Mbarara University of Science and Technology (MUST) George Washington University Makerere University Department of Forestry Biodiversity and Tourism Makerere University University of Stirling University of Kent School of Geography University of Leeds UK Centre of Ecology & Hydrology Lancaster University University of Oxford The Landscapes and Livelihoods Group (TLLG) Overseas Development Institute Manchester Metropolitan University University of Aberdeen University of Exeter School of GeoSciences University of Edinburgh University of Cambridge Department of Environment and Geography University of York Department of Geography University College London Imperial College School of Geography Earth & Environmental Sciences Birmingham Institute of Forest Research University of Birmingham University of Plymouth Geography College of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Lancaster Environment Centre Lancaster University University of Edinburgh School of Biology University of Leeds Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh CENAREST & ANPN & Stirling University University of Bristol School of Biological Sciences Department of Plant Sciences University of Cambridge Living with Lake Centre Laurentian University Royal Botanic Gardens Kew The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds centre for Conservation Science Environmental Change Institute School of Geography and the Environment University of Oxford UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology School of Geography and the Environment University of Oxford The Royal Botanic Gardens Department of Geography and Environmental Science University of Dundee School of Biological Sciences University of Southampton University of East Anglia Stirling University School of Earth and Environment University of Leeds Department of Plant & Soil Science School of Biological Sciences University of Aberdeen, Cruickshank Building Institute for Transport Studies University of Leeds UK Research & Innovation University of Nottingham University of Bangor Center for Tropical Research Institute of the Environment and Sustainability University of California Center for Tropical Conservation Nicholas School of the Environment Duke University Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Michigan Saint Louis Zoo Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology Harvard University Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science Arizona State University Wildlife Conservation Society – Programme Congo Woods Hole Research Center The University of Michigan Herbarium Nicholas School of the Environment National Park Service University of California ForestGEO Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute University of Texas at Austin Smithsonian Institute Washington University in Saint Louis Center for Conservation and Sustainable Development at the Missouri Botanical Garden Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Smithsonian Institution Forest Global Earth Observatory (ForestGEO) Forest Global Earth Observatory (ForestGEO) Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute George Mason University Missouri Botanical Garden Broward County Parks and Recreation Nova Southeastern University Science and Education The Field Museum Department of Biology Boston University Wake Forest University Department of Geographical Sciences University of Maryland San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research Biology Department Washington State University Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies Columbia University Department of Environmental Science Policy and Management University of California Berkeley School of Earth Sciences and Environmental Sustainability Northern Arizona University Department of Geography and the Environment University of Texas at Austin UNELLEZ-Guanare Programa de Ciencias del Agro y el Mar Herbario Universitario (PORT) Ci Progress GreenLife Universidad Nacional Experimental de Guayana Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC) Universidad de los Andes Viet Nature Conservation Centre CIRAD School of Life Sciences University of Lincoln UNESP - São Paulo State University Instituto de Biociências Universidade Estadual Paulista Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation: 1656 FAPESP: 2012/51509-8 FAPESP: 2012/51872-5 Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Goiás: 2017/10267000329 European Research Council: 291585 Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation: 5349 European Research Council: 758873 Belgian Federal Science Policy Office: BR/132/A1/AFRIFORD Belgian Federal Science Policy Office: BR/143/A3/HERBAXYLAREDD Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad: CD2018TEA459A103 CNPq: CNPq/PPBio/457602/2012-0 National Science Foundation: DEB 1754647 Natural Environment Research Council: E/M0022021/1 Royal Society: ICA/R1/180100 Natural Environment Research Council: NE/D005590/1 European Research Council: NE/F005806/1 Natural Environment Research Council: NE/F005806/1 FAPESP: NE/K016431/1 Natural Environment Research Council: NE/N004655/1 FAPESP: NE/N012542/1 Royal Society: NE/P008755/1 FAPESP: NE/S011811/1 National Geographic Society: NE/T01279X/1 CNPq: PELD/441244/2016-5 Belgian Federal Science Policy Office: SD/AR/01A/COBIMFO

Highlights • Multiple excipients were screened for their ability to stabilize influenza vaccine. • Identified a liquid formulation with storage stability for one year at 2–8 °C. • A stable liquid formulation may lead to wider use of influenza vaccination., Vaccination is the most effective means of preventing influenza. However, the cost of producing annual seasonal influenza vaccines puts them out of reach for most developing countries. While live attenuated influenza vaccines are among the most efficacious and can be manufactured at low cost, they may require lyophilization to be stable enough for developing-country use, which adds a significant cost burden. The development of a liquid live attenuated seasonal influenza vaccine that is stable for around a year—the duration of an annual influenza season—would significantly improve not only the production output but also the use and accessibility of influenza vaccines in low-resource settings. In this study, potential stabilizing excipients were screened and optimized using the least stable influenza vaccine strain presently known, H1N1 (A/California/07/2009), as a model. The stability-conferring properties of the lead formulations were also tested with a Type B strain of influenza virus (B/Brisbane/60/2008). Stability was also evaluated with higher titers of influenza virus and exposure to agitation and freeze–thaw stresses to further confirm the stability of the lead formulations. Through this process, we identified a liquid formulation consisting of sucrose phosphate glutamate buffer with 1% arginine and 0.5% recombinant human serum albumin that provided storage stability of one year at 2–8 °C for the influenza A and B strains tested.

Aims Estimating soil organic carbon (SOC) density and influence factors of tropical virgin forests in Hainan Island provide new insight in basic data for SOC pool estimation and its dynamics study. Methods The main distribution areas of tropical virgin forests in Jianfengling (JFL), Bawangling (BWL), Wuzhishan (WZS), Diaoluoshan (DLS), Yinggeling (YGL) of Hainan Island were selected, and soil samples (0–100 cm) were sampled and analyzed. SOC density was estimated by soil vertical fitting method and soil stratification method to discover the distribution characteristics of soil organic carbon in tropical virgin forests of Hainan Island. Important findings Results showed that: (1) The average SOC density using soil vertical fitting method in JFL, BWL, WZS, DLS and YGL was 14.98, 18.46, 16.48, 18.81, 16.66 kg·m, respectively, which was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the estimated average SOC density using soil stratification method in these areas (14.73, 16.24, 15.50, 16.91, 15.03 kg·m, respectively). It is better to use soil vertical fitting method for SOC density estimation when the soil was natural without disturbance. (2) The proportion of SOC content in the first 0–30 cm depth interval out of SOC in the whole 0–100 cm soil profiles in JFL, BWL, WZS, DLS and YGL was 50.50%, ©植物生态学报 Chinese Journal of Plant Ecology 杨怀等: 海南岛热带原始森林主要分布区土壤有机碳密度及影响因素 293 doi: 10.17521/cjpe.2015.0314 48.56%, 43.49%, 47.37%, 42.88%, respectively. (3) SOC density was significantly negative correlated with Shannon-Wiener index, Simpson index, species richness, and soil bulk density; and was significantly positive correlated with altitude, soil porosity, and soil nitrogen. However, SOC density was not significantly correlated to slope, biomass, average diameter at breast height, or average height. (4) Our study area Hainan was located in low latitude area with high rainfall and high temperature, which accelerated the decomposition of organic matter and nutrient recycling, resulting in significantly lower SOC densities in this tropical virgin forests of Hainan Island than the average value in China.

Modern least squares finite element method (LSFEM) has advantage over mixed finite element method for non-self-adjoint problem like Navier-Stokes equations, but has problem to be norm equivalent and mass conservative when using C^0 type basis. In this paper, LSFEM with non-uniform B-splines (NURBS) is proposed for Navier-Stokes equations. High order continuity NURBS is used to construct the finite-dimensional spaces for both velocity and pressure. Variational form is derived from the governing equations with primitive variables and the DOFs due to additional variables are not necessary. There is a novel k-refinement which has spectral convergence of least squares functional. The method also has same advantages as isogeometric analysis like automatic mesh generation and exact geometry representation. Several benchmark problems are solved using the proposed method. The results agree well with the benchmark solutions available in literature. The results also show good performance in mass conservation.

The growth performance of individual plants in a population can be affected by the plant-plant interaction, which has been well recognized and is called neighborhood interference. Though mechanisms are still unclear, the variations in gas exchange parameters in relation to the neighborhood interference between individual plants are crucial for evaluating the effects of plant-plant interaction. CO 2 assimilation in leaves of teak under natural conditions of dry seasons and wet seasons as well as its response to variations in light flux density and CO 2 concentration in different neighborhood interferences were simultaneously measured with Li-6400 portable photosynthesis system in a 21-year-old tropical plantation forest in Jianfengling, Hainan Island, China. This article dealt with the change rule of neighborhood interference on tree characteristics of gas exchange and its dynamic response to light en-vironments of individual plants. Diurnal courses of photosynthesis of individual leaves were not affected by neighborhood interfer-ence, but net photosynthetic rates showed a negative relationship with the intensity of neighborhood interference. The ratio of daily average P n in weak, moderate, strong and heavy neighborhood interferences was 2.5:2.3:1.7:1.0, and the daily maximum P n in weak interference was 2.8 times that in heavy interference. Leaf transpiration and stomatal conductance decreased with the increasing of interference intensity. Characteristics of photosynthetic light response and CO 2 response changed with the neighborhood interference, and values of leaf gas exchange parameters including A sat , Q sat , α A , CE , V cmax and J max in weak interference were enhanced by 2.7, 1.3, 1.4, 2.7, 1.9 and 2.8 times, respectively, than those in heavy interference. But changes in those parameters partly depended on light environment and CO 2 concentration, and the influence of changes in light environment on weak interference individuals was sig-nificantly stronger than that on heavy interference. Beyond the growth CO 2 concentration, the influence resulting from changes in CO 2 concentration on heavy interference individuals was obviously stronger than that on weak interference. Neighborhood interference can be described as a major means of intraspecific competition of population in a plantation forest with uniform forest structure and consistent management. Carbon assimilation can be affected by the neighborhood interference, and result in divergence in growth performance. Indices of neighborhood interference can be used to evaluate the intraspecific competition, and based on this point, we can make maximum use of resources after stand structure has been well adjusted.

1. 1. Anterior kidney phagocytes from channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) exposed to 10 and 24°C from 1 day to 5 weeks were assayed for phagocytic ability and respiratory burst activity to Aeromonas hydrophila and Edwardsiella ictaluri. 2. 2. The results of this study indicated that phagocytosis in channel catfish remained partially functional at low temperature without adaptation, although partial suppression was observed. 3. 3. Adaptation to low temperature did lead to an improvement in the respiratory burst which would imply improved bacterial killing ability. 4. 4. Our study suggests that phagocytosis may play a significant role in preventing disease at low environmental temperature.

Channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus were subjected to a simulated handling (including bleeding) and transport stress. Using flow cytometry in conjunction with monoclonal antibodies to channel catfish B and T lymphocytes (minimal cross-reaction with thrombocytes) and neutrophils coupled with routine hematological methods, we demonstrated significant decreases in the percentage of B lymphocytes and increases in T lymphocytes and neutrophils of transported fish, yet there was no change in neutrophil phagocytic function. These data suggest that the length of the stressing event or the duration of exposure of the neutrophils to cortisol could determine if immune responses become suppressed. These data prompted us to expose channel catfish in vivo, and isolated neutrophils in vitro, to cortisol at various concentrations and for various time periods. Exposure of neutrophils to cortisol concentrations of 100 μg/dL for 2 h did not suppress phagocytosis; however, significant decreases in the percent phagoc...

The purpose of this study was to compare the phagocytosis of Aeromonas hydrophila, Edwardsiella ictuluri, Edwardsiella tarda and Micrococcus luteus by channel catfish neutrophils. Various aspects of opsonization effect and bactericidal ability of channel catfish neutrophils were investigated. Percent phagocytosis range from a low of 1% to a high of 91%. The highest percent phagocytosis and phagocytic indices routinely occurred with normal serum and were highest for M. luteus (91.78%, 55.25) and A. hydrophila (87.52%, 43.60). In all cases, the percent phagocytosis and phagocytic index was lowest in assays without serum. Channel catfish neutrophils displayed a bactericidal/static ability for each bacterium tested except E. tarda . Neutrophils exhibited a greater inhibitory capacity for A. hydrophila and M. luteus than for the other bacteria when in the presence of normal or inactivated catfish serum.

Z. Jaafar (&)Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore,Singapore 117543, Singaporee-mail: jaafarz@si.eduPresent Address:Z. JaafarDivision of Fishes, National Museum of Natural History, SmithsonianInstitution, Washington, DC 20004, USAC. DexiangNational Parks Board, 1 Cluny Road, Singapore 259569, Singapore

1. Temperatures of 18 degrees C for acclimation or assay had minimal or no effect on channel catfish phagocyte function. Significant suppression was observed at 10 degrees C acclimation and assay temperature. 2. According to the results of a multiple acclimation/assay temperature combination study, the primary impact of temperature on phagocyte function was due to the assay temperature. 3. The only functional change caused by acclimation temperature was the possible adaptation of the respiratory burst. However, 10 degrees C acclimation did cause a decline in the number of lymphocytes in the anterior kidney but not the number of neutrophils. In a temperature-kinetic study, the suppressive effect of 10 degrees C assay temperature was confirmed. 4. Results of our study indicated that phagocytosis in channel catfish is temperature-mediated. However, phagocytes appeared to be more resistant to low temperature than lymphocytes, which implies the importance of phagocytosis in the defense mechanisms of channel catfish at low temperatures.