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Kenya is classified as a food-deficit country. Approximately 20 percent of the population does not attain the minimum dietary requirements to sustain a healthy and productive life, according to the National Bureau of Statistics. African Indigenous Vegetables (AIVs) contain beneficial micro-nutrients and are critical for achieving nutrition security. This study used cross-sectional household survey data to test the plausibility of enhancing food access in the context of nutrition security, on the one hand, and the contribution of the AIVs to nutrition security, on the other hand. The results show that, the consumption of AIVs is not widely acknowledged or documented. Hhouseholds spend up to 15 times less money on AIVs when compared with exotic vegetables this is partly attributed to the perceptions that shape their tastes and preference. At a macro-level, the lack of consistent data makes the promotion of the importance of these vegetables to the policy makers a mundane task since it is difficult to demonstrate and authenticate the nutritional benefits that have been accrued by the consumption of these vegetables.

Access to market information is an important determinant in agricultural commercialisation. However, most econometric analysis have ignored effects of market information networks that necessitate dissemination among smallholders. This paper aims to assess the effects of social networks on commercialisation of African Leafy Vegetables (ALVs). ALVs which were once considered as poor man s crop have increasingly become an important crop due to the increased nutritional awareness especially among urban dwellers. We model its commercialisation using a two stage double hurdle model: participation decision and extent of commercialisation. The paper is based on data collected in 2015 from a household survey on 202 small holder vegetable farmers in Kenya. Econometric analysis were conducted on STATA 13. Social networks were found significant determinants in intensifying ALVs commercialisation. Market information received by people outside the village (bridging social capital) increased the likelihood of intensifying ALVs commercialisation by 52%. Market information received by fellow farmers mainly through farmer groups had a positive likelihood of intensifying commercialisation by 365% compared to information received by extension officers. Other positive determinants of ALVs commercialisation were farm size, household size, ALVs income share while negative determinants were livestock unit, age, and share of off farm income. Acknowledgement : The authors are grateful for research grants from the Horticultural Innovations and Learning for Improved Nutrition and Livelihood in East Africa project (HORTINLEA) funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development of Germany., This is a working draft. Please do not cite without permission of the author.

Although indigenous vegetables (AIVs) have always been a staple food crop, the promotion of their production, marketing and consumption is a recent phenomenon. There is already consensus that AIVs contribute to food security by providing a variety of nutrients, while easing food insecurity tensions during periods of food shortages. This study found that the AIV producers sampled in Kenya followed sustainable production practices by predominantly using organic fertilizer and thus maximizing natural biological processes and promoting local biodiversity, both of which help improve soil fertility and environmental sustainability. In addition, the use of local seeds minimized farm expenses and the cost of non-renewable inputs. This study focused on fertilizer use, with the aim of identifying the main socioeconomic factors determining the use of different types of fertilizer among AIV farmers. The ordered probit model found that larger (in terms of household size) and better-off households were more likely to use organic fertilizer. In addition, receipt of remittances, distance to market, access to information about fertilizer application and living in a rural area increased the likelihood of organic fertilizer being used. Given the contribution of AIVs to food security and their production processes complying with sustainable production, it is recommended that their production and marketing should be promoted and scaled up.

Fresh fruit and vegetable is a dynamic and innovative industry evidencing relevant changes in the organization of inter‐firm business relationships. In the supply chain based competition environment of today’s world markets, relational approaches between the main actors of agribusiness marketing chains evolve. A decisive element for organisation of the local production and marketing system is that retailers transformed themselves from resellers of products to actors that play a critical role in product development, branding, supplier selection and distribution. The paper reports results from two case studies in Germany and Italy showing that the continuing concentration process on the distribution level as well as the management of themarketing chain exerted by the buying side interfere with the integrity of the regionally consolidated horticultural production and marketing system – characterised by close and frequent interactions between the horticulture business participants. Aim of the study is exploring the structure and coordination mechanisms of fresh‐vegetable chains in Europe on a regional level. A value‐chain approach was chosen to be the main analytical tool due to its effectiveness in explaining the distribution of tasks, risks, responsibilities and margins along the market chain. The analysis is complemented by a cluster‐approach technique to determine interdependent relationships between regional cooperation forces and the development of regional economies. The interviews of both case studies, Germany (19) and Italy (18) have been fully transcribed. The first case study was conducted in Germany, Palatinate, which is an important fresh vegetables production region. In the second case study, Italy (Emilia-Romagna and Veneto, which are important for fresh vegetables and fruit production), the existence of a fresh vegetable cluster was not that clear. Emilia‐Romagna is especially characterised by a high concentration of distribution and logistic operations related to produce coming from several areas in Italy and Europe. In the current phase of research, results of the study are still preliminary. The qualitative and time‐consuming analysis of the interviews to extract central concepts is still in progress. In a further step, after single case analysis, a cross‐case‐analysis of the concepts will be conducted to elaborate similarities and differences.

In Flanders a survey was organized in the agricultural and horticultural schools. In this survey the graduate students were questioned on what their expectations are for their professional life. Asked for their intention in the immediate future it was remarkable that 36 % of the graduate students had the intention to continue school. Of the students that will not continue their studies 17 % will work on the parental holding; this is 29 % of the students whose parents are entrepreneurs. Only 10 % of the graduates will start a new holding immediately after they finish school. In the long term 21 % of the graduate students want to take over the holding of their parents, 24 % want to start a brand new enterprise. This means that almost 50 % of the graduate students want to become an entrepreneur one day. Of these future entrepreneurs 45 % will manage an agricultural holding, 15 % will manage a horticultural holding, 23 % a landscape gardening holding and the other 17 % will manage another kind of holding. To maintain the number of holdings in Flanders 475 agricultural and 138 horticultural new holdings are needed every year. According to the study only 207 and 69 new entrepreneurs are available; this is not enough to replace all the holdings that disappear. On the other hand new holdings are larger than the average holding; to keep the total production potential of the sector less new holdings are required. For the graduate students the most important criterion for a job is a good income. On the second place, but very close to the first one is the expectation that the job would offer a varied work. To attract more future entrepreneurs it is necessary to improve the image of the sector.

Arbeitsplätze im Gartenbau sind trotz fortschreitender Mechanisierung durch einen hohen Anteil an Handarbeit gekennzeichnet. Die aktuellen Rahmenbedingungen im Gartenbau erfordern für die Zukunft einen effizienteren Einsatz des Faktors Arbeit in wirtschaftlichen und an Attraktivität gewinnenden Arbeitssystemen. Die Entwicklung solcher Systeme erfordert ein Verfahren zur objektiven Bewertung vorhandener und neuer Betriebs- und Arbeitsabläufe. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt die Weiterentwicklung eines auf der Verfolgung von Infrarot-Leuchtdioden basierenden 3-D-Bewegungsanalysesystems. Dazu wurde das Kamerasystem der Firma Wente/Thiedig um eine vom System unabhängige Software erweitert. Die für die Bewertung herangezogenen Indikatoren werden ausführlich beschrieben und im Ergebnisteil auf ihre Eignung überprüft. Aufgrund der digitalen Aufzeichnung der Bewegungen erhöht sich die Aussagekraft durch einen größeren Stichprobenumfang und eine höhere Messgenauigkeit erheblich. Um die Aussagekraft und den Erkenntnisgewinn aus den softwareseitig ermittelten Indikatoren zu überprüfen, wurden Anwendungsversuche mit verschiedenen Fragestellungen durchgeführt, die im zweiten Teil der Arbeit beschrieben werden. Am Beispiel der Produktauflage auf ein Förderband werden die Einflüsse spezifischer Gestaltungsparameter auf die Leistungsfähigkeit des Gesamtsystems verdeutlicht. Die Veränderung der Bandgeschwindigkeit wirkte sich stark auf die erzielten Leistungen aus. In einem weiteren Versuch werden zwei Sitzplätze auf Spargelerntehilfen über die Bewegungsanalyse miteinander verglichen. Mehrere Indikatoren belegen die Vorzüge des mit Kniepolstern ausgestatteten Sitzplatzes. Die Ergebnisse der beiden Versuche zeigen, dass es gelungen ist, zahlreiche relevante Indikatoren für den Vergleich der aufgezeichneten Bewegungen zu bilden. Der Nutzer gewinnt aus den Bewegungsdaten Informationen, die eine objektive Entscheidungsfindung ermöglichen. Als besonders wertvoll ist der Erkenntnisgewinn bezüglich einer menschengerechten Arbeitsplatzgestaltung zu bewerten, um für die Weiterentwicklung gartenbaulicher Arbeitssysteme neben der Wirtschaftlichkeit andere Entscheidungskriterien zu fördern. Despite the fast technical progress modern horticultural work places still require a lot of manual work. The current development in the horticultural sector demands a more efficient implementation of manpower and an increasing attractiveness of simple manual tasks for the future. The design of such systems demands a method to objectively evaluate present and new work systems. This thesis describes a largely improved 3-D-motion analysis system based on the tracking of infrared light diodes. The camera system manufactured by Wente/Thiedig is extended by a newly developed independent software to evaluate the motion data. From the recorded motion data quantitative parameters and qualitative parameters are calculated. Several graphical functions within the new software facilitate the understanding of the motion data. The available objective measures of comparison are described in detail in chapter four. In the experiments they are reviewed for their suitability. The digital recording of the motion data allows a large sample size. Accuracy and explanatory power as well as the level of confidence are increased. To proof their suitability and the increase of information gained with the measures of comparison practical experiments were carried out. These are described in the fifth chapter of this thesis. A workstation for placing products on on a conveyor belt is varied to show the influence of design parameters on the operating efficiency. The speed of the conveyor movement strongly affected the output. In another experiment two seat constructions built for asparagus harvesting aids are compared by motion analysis. Several measures of comparison suggest to favor the seat with knee pads. The results from all practical experiments show that relevant measures of comparison were defined to successfully compare the motion data. The user of the newly developed analyzing program gains valuable information to make a truly impartial decision. The motion analysis systems enables scientists to gather a multitude of information out of one experiment, which formerly required a combination of several methods. A more of information to rate human factors is notedly valuable, encouraging the development of horticultural work systems towards incorporating economic and ergonomic criteria.

Organisationsprobleme im Ökomarketing - eine transaktionskostentheoretische Analyse im Absatzkanal konventioneller Lebensmittelhandel Die im Vergleich zum großen Nachfragepotential zögerliche Entwicklung des Ökomarkts in Deutschland ist auf Organisationsprobleme zurückzuführen. Die Organisationsprobleme behindern insbesondere die großskalige Ökomarkterschließung über die konventionellen Supermarktketten, erschweren aber auch die Effizienzsteigerung im kleiner strukturierten alternativen Naturkosthandel. Die Erschließung des großen Marktpotenzials für ökologische Produkte wird auf Ebene der Marktakteure durch drei Aspekte des Organisationsproblems erschwert, nämlich (1) Marktstrukturprobleme, (2) Ressourcenbeschaffungsprobleme (beschränktes Angebot) sowie (3) Absicherungsprobleme. Die Frage der Absicherung spezieller (Pionier-) Investitionen vor Opportunismus ist Hauptgegenstand der vergleichenden Institutionenanalyse, der Transaktionskostentheorie nach WILLIAMSON (1990). Die Organisationsprobleme im Ökomarketing wurden in 23 Experteninterviews entlang der Vermarktungskette mit einem transaktionskostentheoretisch basierten Untersuchungsmodell qualitativ untersucht. Schwerpunkt dabei war der Absatzkanal konventionelle Lebensmittelketten. Dabei zeigte sich die Dominanz marktnaher Organisationsformen, obwohl bei undifferenzierter Analyse der Transaktionsdimensionen eine Wahl hierarchienäherer Organisationsformen zu erwarten gewesen wäre. Die differenzierte Verwendung der Analysekriterien der Transaktion weist auf ausgleichende Kräfte hin, die marktnahe Koordination im Ökomarketing ermöglichen, trotz teilweise hoher Faktorspezifität und hoher externer Unsicherheit (z.B. labiles Marktgleichgewicht aufgrund von Beschaffungsproblemen und durch große Nachfrageschübe infolge von Lebensmittelskandalen). Wichtige Ausgleichskräfte sind vor allem die symmetrische Verteilung der Faktorspezifität zwischen den Marktpartnern, ihre Reputation und die Einflüsse des menschlichen Faktors (z.B. Beziehungsfähigkeit, außerökonomische Präferenzen). Außerdem gibt es zahlreiche Alternativen zur Absicherung durch vertikale Unternehmensintegration, die im einfachen Markt-Hierarchie-Paradigma übersehen werden. Die genauere Beschreibung der Transaktionsdimensionen und Absicherungsformen in der vorliegenden Dissertation bildet die Grundlage für ein effizienteres Management der Organisation innerhalb der Vermarktungskette. Dies betrifft z.B. die Frage, ob die Gründung einer Erzeugergemeinschaft, also einer hierarchienahen Organisationsform, nützlich ist. Im deutschen Ökomarkt wird es zu wachsenden Absicherungsproblemen kommen, wenn sich das Marktwachstum stark beschleunigt, denn beim Übergang zu einem offensiven, großskaligem Ökomarketing begeben sich die Marktpioniere in zeitweise asymmetrisch verteilte Faktorspezifitäten. Aber auch dann ist es effizienter - wo es möglich ist - die symmetrische Entwicklung der Verbindlichkeiten in einer marktnah koordinierten Vermarktungskette zu betreiben oder partielle Integrationsschritte, wie gegenseitige Beteiligungen oder gemeinsame Tochtergesellschaften zu bevorzugen. Ein marktnah koordiniertes Sicherheitsmanagement erfordert die genaue Kenntnis und Analyse der Transaktionsdimensionen, ihrer Wirkungsbereiche und -verteilung und der ausgleichenden Faktoren an jeder Stelle der Vermarktungskette. Der Vorteil marktnaher Koordination gegenüber der Hierarchie liegt in ihrer höheren Flexibilität, den besseren Leistungsanreizen und geringeren internen Verwaltungskosten. Vertikale und horizontale Kooperation kann bürokratiearm umgesetzt werden, wenn auf die symmetrische Entwicklung der Interessen und Faktorspezifitäten bei den beteiligten Geschäftspartnern geachtet wird und gleichzeitig die Kooperationsfähigkeit als soziale Kompetenz der Beteiligten entwickelt wird., Organizational Problems in Marketing of Organic Products - a qualitative Analysis based on Transaction Cost Economics in the Trade Channel of conventional Supermarket Chains (Thesis - Humboldt-University of Berlin 2000) The market share of organic products is developing slowly compared with the potential demand forecasted. Organizational problems can be regarded as the main reason; they hamper especially the large scale market extension into conventional supermarket chains, but also diminish efficiency in smaller scaled alternative natural food trade systems. Market extension for organic products is inhibited due to three aspects relating to organizational problems: (1) deficits in market structure, (2) problems on resourcing (limited supply) and (3) problems of safeguarding an agreement. Safeguarding of special (pioneer) investment against opportunism is a central issue of comparative institutional analysis, in this case the transaction cost economics after O. E. WILLIAMSON (1985) Organizational problems of "organic-marketing" were investigated qualitatively using interviews with 23 experts involved in the marketing process at different levels. The framework of investigations were based upon transaction cost economics. Focus was set on the trade channel of the conventional retail chains. As a result it could be shown that organizational forms close to market-driven coordination dominates over forms of vertical integration, even though an undifferentiated analysis would have favored the latter. A more differentiated use of transaction dimensions shows balancing powers, which allow market-based coordination in "organic-marketing" in spite of high asset specificity and high external uncertainty (e.g. fragile market equilibrium as a result of procurement problems and influence of rapid growth of demand due to food scandals). The essential balancing factors are an equilibrium of asset specificity between market partners, their reputation and influence of the human factor (e.g. soft skills like human relations, non-economic preferences). In addition there are many alternatives to safeguarding by vertical integration that are otherwise overlooked in a simple market-hierarchy-paradigm. The exacter description of transaction dimensions and different forms of safeguarding given in this thesis leads to a more efficient marketing chain management. This can, for example, raise the issue whether a horizontal cooperation of agricultural producers, i.e. a hierarchical organization, is beneficial. In the German market for organic products safeguarding problems will increase once the market growth accelerates, because transition to offensive large-scaled "organic-marketing" temporarily leads market-pioneers into an asymmetrically distributed asset specificity. But even in this case it will be more efficient - where possible - to search for a symmetric development of obligations or to prefer partial vertical integration such as mutual participation or common affiliated companies. A market oriented management of safeguarding requires exact knowledge and analyses of transaction dimensions, their sphere of influence and their distribution of action and of compensating factors on every point of the marketing-chain. The advantage of a market-driven coordination compared to hierarchy is based on a higher flexibility, higher incentives and lower internal administration costs. Vertical and horizontal cooperation can be implemented on efficient bureaucracy basis, if partners pay attention to symmetric development of their interests and asset specificities and develop their social skills at the same time.

Ausgangspunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Suche der gartenbaulichen Beratung nach Visualisierungsmöglichkeiten umfangreicher gartenbaulicher Datensätze, die einerseits zu einer graphischen Zusammenfassung der in den Daten enthaltenen Informationen dienen und die andererseits auf interaktivem Weg Möglichkeiten der graphischen Analyse von Erhebungsdaten liefern. Die weitgehende Freiheit von Modellannahmen, der überwiegend deskriptive Charakter der Untersuchungen, das interaktive, schrittweise Vorgehen in der Auswertung, und die Betonung graphischer Elemente kennzeichnet die Arbeit als Beitrag zur explorativen Datenanalyse. Das ausgewählte Methodenspektrum, das ausführlich besprochen wird, schließt Verfahren der Dimensionserniedrigung (Hauptkomponentenanalyse, Korrespondenzanalyse und mehrdimensionale Skalierung) und darauf aufbauende Biplots, die Analyse gruppierter Daten (Prokrustes-Rotation und Gruppenanalysemodelle in der Hauptkomponentenanalyse), Linienverbände (Liniendiagramme der formalen Begriffsanalyse, Baumdiagramme und graphische Modelle), sowie ergänzende graphische Verfahren, wie zum Beispiel Trellis-Displays, ein. Beispielhaft werden eine betriebsbegleitende Untersuchung mit Cyclamen aus der Beratungspraxis der Landwirtschaftskammer Westfalen-Lippe und die Kennzahlen der Jahre 1992 bis 1994 der Topfpflanzenbetriebe des Arbeitskreises für Betriebswirtschaft im Gartenbau aus Hannover analysiert. Neben einer Vielzahl informativer Einzelergebnisse, zeigt die Arbeit auch auf, daß die qualitativ relativ schlechten Datengrundlagen nur selten eindeutige Schlußfolgerungen zulassen. Sie sensibilisiert also in diesem Bereich für die Problematik, die der explorativen Analyse wenig perfekter Daten innewohnt. Als besonders sinnvolle Hilfsmittel in der graphischen Analyse erweisen sich Biplots, hierarchische Liniendiagramme und Trellis-Displays. Die Segmentierung einer Vielzahl von Objekten in einzelne Gruppen wird durch Klassifikations- und Regressionsbäume vor allem unter dem Gesichtspunkt der Visualisierung gut gelöst, da den entstehenden Baumstrukturen auch die die Segmente bestimmenden Variablen visuell entnommen werden können. Diskrete graphische Modelle bieten schließlich einen guten Ansatzpunkt zur Analyse von multivariaten Beziehungszusammenhängen. Einzelne, nicht in der statistischen Standardsoftware vorhandene Prozeduren sind in eigens erstellten Programmcodes zusammengefaßt und können mit dem Programm Genstat genutzt werden. In order to interpret large data sets in the context of consultancy and extension in horticulture, this thesis attempts to find ways to visually explore horticultural multivariate data, in order to obtain a concise description and summary of the information available in the data and moreover develop possibilities to interactively analyse survey data. The thesis is part of an exploratory data analysis which analyses data without making specific model assumptions, is predominantly descriptive, analyses data step by step in a highly interactive setting, and makes full use of all kinds of graphical displays. The methods used comprise various dimensionality reduction techniques (principal components analysis, correspondence analysis, multidimensional scaling), biplots, the multivariate analysis of grouped data (procrustes rotation and groupwise principal components), graphical models, CART, and line diagrams of formal concept analysis. In addition, further graphical methods are used, like e.g. trellis displays. Data from an on-site investigation of the production process of Cyclamen in 20 nurseries and from the microeconomics indicators of 297 growers in Germany (so called Kennzahlen) from the years 1992 to 1994 are used to demonstrate the analytical capabilities of the methods used. The data present a perfect example of unperfect data, and therefore represent the majority of the data sets that horticultural consultancy has to work with. Thus, it becomes clear, that despite the variety of results, which helps to enhance the understanding of the data at hand, not only the complexity of the processes observed, but also the low data quality make it fairly difficult to arrive at clear cut conclusions. The most helpful tools in the graphical data analysis are biplots, hierarchical line diagrams and trellis displays. Finding an empirical grouping of objects is best solved by classification and regression trees, which provide both, the data segmentation, and an intuitively appealing visualisation and explanation of the derived groups. In order to understand multivariate relationships better, discrete graphical models are well suited. The procedures to carry out a number of the methods which cannot be found in general statistics packages are provided in the form of Genstat codes.