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Surrogates are used in conservation planning to select sites to represent species when information about species’ geographical distributions is insufficient. Many surrogates for biodiversity have used biotic (e.g., vegetation assemblages) or biogeographic distributions of a group of species (e.g., birds) that are easier to inventory than more cryptic species of interest. Because knowledge of species geographical distributions is mostly limited, environmental diversity (ED), an approach that uses environmental dissimilarity between sites to select areas for conservation, is a promising alternative surrogacy strategy. While studies in the terrestrial realms justify further investigations of the effectiveness of ED as a surrogate to determine conservation priority of sites, ours represents a significant expansion of this focus to consider the marine realm. In this study, we defined environmental space using nine variables and evaluated ED as a surrogate of global marine mammal species. We found that ED is an effective surrogacy strategy for marine mammals: sites selected to span environmental diversity represented 61% more marine mammals, on average, than a random subset of sites. Although the effectiveness of ED has been demonstrated in previous studies of terrestrial vertebrates, we believe this is the first time ED is assessed as a surrogate in marine systems at the global scale. Our findings suggest that ED may also be useful to prioritize sites for conservation of other marine taxa.

Marine plastic pollution (MPP) has emerged as a global sustainability challenge with environmental, social, and economic consequences. This has inspired action at every scale of governance—from the local level to international institutions. However, policy and management efforts have been reactive and ad hoc, resulting in concerns about their efficacy, cost, and unintended consequences. To adequately address MPP and its global impacts, a systematic, evidence-based approach is needed. Seascape ecology, a subdiscipline of landscape ecology, is an interdisciplinary system science focused on the reciprocal relationship between the patterns and processes that shape seascapes. In this paper, we define the plastic-scape as all the social-ecological systems that interact with plastic (as a product and pollutant), the drivers and pathways of MPP, and the natural and human environments impacted by MPP. We then demonstrate the ways in which principles, methods, tools, and transdisciplinary research approaches from seascape ecology can be applied to better understand the plastic-scape, inform future MPP research and improve management strategies.

Increasing rates of Anthropocene biodiversity extinctions suggest a possible sixth mass extinction event. Conservation planners are seeking effective ways to protect species, hotspots of biodiversity, and dynamic ecosystems to reduce and eventually eliminate the degradation and loss of diversity at the scale of genes, species, and ecosystems. While well-established, adequately enforced protected areas (PAs) increase the likelihood of preserving species and habitats, traditional placement methods are frequently inadequate in protecting biodiversity most at risk. Consequently, the Key Biodiversity Area (KBA) Partnership developed a set of science-based criteria and thresholds that iteratively identify sites where biodiversity is most in need of protection. KBA methodology has been rarely applied in the marine realm, where data are often extremely limited. We tested the feasibility of KBA population metrics in the Greater Caribbean marine region using occurrence and population data and threat statuses for 1669 marine vertebrates. These data identified areas where site-specific conservation measures can effectively protect biodiversity. Using KBA criteria pertaining to threatened and irreplaceable biodiversity, we identified 90 geographically unique potential KBAs, 34 outside and 56 within existing PAs. These provide starting points for local conservation managers to verify that KBA thresholds are met and to delineate site boundaries. Significant data gaps, such as population sizes, life history characteristics, and extent of habitats, prevent the full application of the KBA criteria to data-poor marine species. Increasing the rate and scope of marine sampling programs and digital availability of occurrence datasets will improve identification and delineation of KBAs in the marine environment.

A mess of plastic It is not clear what strategies will be most effective in mitigating harm from the global problem of plastic pollution. Borrelle et al. and Lau et al. discuss possible solutions and their impacts. Both groups found that substantial reductions in plastic-waste generation can be made in the coming decades with immediate, concerted, and vigorous action, but even in the best case scenario, huge quantities of plastic will still accumulate in the environment. Science , this issue p. 1515 , p. 1455

Microplastics in the ocean function as an artificial microbial reef, with diverse communities of eukaryotic and bacterial microbiota colonizing its surface. It is not well understood if these communities are specific for the type of microplastic on which they develop. Here, we carried out a 6‐week long incubation experiment of six common plastic polymers in Bocas del Toro, Panama. The community composition of prokaryotes based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing data, when judged under a null model analysis, shows that neither plastic polymer type nor time exposed to the environment plays a significant role in shaping biofilm communities. However, the null model analyses of eukaryotic communities based on 18S rRNA gene sequences reveal that they can be significantly influenced by plastic polymer type and time incubated. This was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy, which allowed us to distinguish plastic‐specific diatom communities by the end of the incubation period.

Fish consumption advisories provide valuable information on the protection of human health from contaminated fish consumption, yet are rarely conducted comprehensively nor communicated widely. Environmental policies that fail to adequately develop and implement fish consumption advisory programs are largely to blame. This policy analysis delves into the strengths and weaknesses of current fish consumption advisory programs in the United States and Canada. To compare between these countries, fish consumption advisory programs were broadly described across all 50 US states and 13 Canadian provinces/territories. Two case studies were chosen to provide a more detailed look into the complexities of fish consumption advisory programs (Arizona and Nova Scotia). It is apparent from this research that fish consumption advisory programs and policies do not comprehensively address human health and environmental justice concerns in either country suggesting policy changes are necessary. Opportunities for and barriers to regulatory change in both countries were identified, and suggestions on sharing strong policies were provided. Finally, international frameworks aimed at improving fish consumption advisory programs were explored, mainly those used by the European Union. Environmental justice and human health concerns will only increase given changing environments and emerging toxicological issues; therefore, increased focus on fish consumption advisory programs is warranted. This focus should consider policy change in particular because it can codify human health and environmental justice protections upon which stronger fish consumption advisory programs can be built.

Lakes and ponds across metro-Phoenix primarily provide recreational opportunities for fishing, as swimming and other uses are generally not permitted. Given these designated uses, many of the lakes and ponds are monitored for nutrients and signs of eutrophication, but not necessarily for heavy metals or organic pollutants that can be transferred over time to recreationally-caught fish. This may be a concern considering the practice of many Phoenix residents who catch and consume fish from urban waterways. In this pilot study, samples of commonly stocked fish species (e.g. trout, bluegill, bass and catfish) and resident fish (sunfish) were collected through standard recreational fishing practices and analyzed for both metal and organic contaminants. Results showed varying concentrations of pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and phthalates, as well as several potentially toxic metals. These findings may have long-term public health consequences, as approximately 60% of urban anglers have reported eating the fish they catch. Results from this study highlight the need for regular urban water and stocked fish monitoring, improved regulations to protect urban surface water quality, and creation of a comprehensive and standardized protocol for urban fish consumption advisories.

Global biodiversity targets require us to identify species at risk of extinction and quantify status and trends of biodiversity. The Red List Index (RLI) tracks trends in the conservation status of entire species groups over time by monitoring changes in categories assigned to species. Here, we calculate this index for the world’s fishes in 2010, using a sampled approach to the RLI based on a randomly selected sample of 1,500 species, and also present RLI splits for freshwater and marine systems separately. We further compare specific traits of a worldwide fish list to our sample to assess its representativeness. Overall, 15.1% of species in the sample were estimated to be threatened with extinction, resulting in an sampled RLI of 0.914 for all species, 0.972 in marine and 0.860 in freshwater ecosystems. Our sample showed fishing as the principal threat for marine species, and pollution by agricultural and foresty effluents for freshwater fishes. The sampled list provides a robust representation for tracking trends in the conservation status of the world’s fishes, including disaggregated sampled indices for marine and freshwater fish. Reassessment and backcasting of this index is urgent to check the achievement of the commitments proposed in global biodiversity targets.

Ecotourism focused on whales and dolphins has become a popular activity and an important source of revenue for many countries. Whale watching is vital to supporting conservation efforts and provides numerous benefits to local communities including educational opportunities and job creation. However, the sustainability of whale-based ecotourism depends on the behavior and health of whale populations and it is crucial that ecotourism industries consider the impact of their activities on whale behavior. To address this statement, we collected behavioral data (e.g., change in swimming direction, frequency of breaching, slap behaviors, diving, and spy hops) from humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in the marine protected area of Las Perlas Archipelago off the Pacific coast of Panama. The goal was to determine if tourist vessel presence had an influence on whale behaviors. We conducted this study during the humpback whale breeding season from August through September 2019. Based on 47 behavioral observations, we found that higher boat density corresponded with humpback whales’ frequency of direction changes, which based on previous literature is believed to be a sign of disturbance. Alternatively, no changes in behavior were observed with varying boat density. This result is important given Panamanian regulations first implemented in 2007 by Resolution AMD/ARAP No. 01, 2007 prohibit whale-based tourism from disturbing whales, which is explicitly measured by changes in whale behavior. Because there is no systematic monitoring of whale watching activity to enforce the regulations, there is currently little compliance from tour operators and tourists. The integration of animal behavior research into management planning should result in more effective regulation and compliance of such conservation policies.

A fundamental understanding of the impact of petrochemicals and other stressors on marine biodiversity is critical for effective management, restoration, recovery, and mitigation initiatives. As species-specific information on levels of petrochemical exposure and toxicological response are lacking for the majority of marine species, a trait-based assessment to rank species vulnerabilities to petrochemical activities in the Gulf of Mexico can provide a more comprehensive and effective means to prioritize species, habitats, and ecosystems for improved management, restoration and recovery. To initiate and standardize this process, we developed a trait-based framework, applicable to a wide range of vertebrate and invertebrate species, that can be used to rank relative population vulnerabilities of species to petrochemical activities in the Gulf of Mexico. Through expert consultation, 18 traits related to likelihood of exposure, individual sensitivity, and population resilience were identified and defined. The resulting multi-taxonomic petrochemical vulnerability framework can be adapted and applied to a wide variety of species groups and geographic regions. Additional recommendations and guidance on the application of the framework to rank species vulnerabilities under specific petrochemical exposure scenarios, management needs or data limitations are also discussed.

International audience; The Convention on Biological Diversity’s post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework will probably include a goal to stabilize and restore the status of species. Its delivery would be facilitated by making the actions required to halt and reverse species loss spatially explicit. Here, we develop a species threat abatement and restoration (STAR) metric that is scalable across species, threats and geographies. STAR quantifies the contributions that abating threats and restoring habitats in specific places offer towards reducing extinction risk. While every nation can contribute towards halting biodiversity loss, Indonesia, Colombia, Mexico, Madagascar and Brazil combined have stewardship over 31% of total STAR values for terrestrial amphibians, birds and mammals. Among actions, sustainable crop production and forestry dominate, contributing 41% of total STAR values for these taxonomic groups. Key Biodiversity Areas cover 9% of the terrestrial surface but capture 47% of STAR values. STAR could support governmental and non-state actors in quantifying their contributions to meeting science-based species targets within the framework.

Solid waste disposal is a growing concern among Pacific Island nations. With severe limitations in land area, in combination with the lack of reuse or recycling options, many near-shore marine ecosystems across Oceania are highly impacted by locally derived marine debris, including plastics, microplastics and associated chemical contaminants. In order to catalyze improved solid waste management and plastic use policies, the potential ecological and public health risks must be clearly identified and communicated. Using an ecological risk assessment framework, potential risks to marine ecosystems and human health are explored by quantifying microplastics and organic contaminants in 4 study sites located in Tutuila, American Samoa. Results of sampled near-shore marine waters, marine sediments and molluscs indicate that microplastics are unevenly distributed in the marine environment, with the highest concentrations detected in marine molluscs (e.g. average of 15 and 17 particles per organism, the majority of which were microfibers identified as polyethylene terephthalate). These invertebrates also have the highest environmental concentrations of organic contaminants, including phthalates, pesticides and PCBs. However, based on estimated rates of invertebrate consumption, the risk of adverse impacts to human health are likely to be low. Regardless, future studies are recommended to better understand the environmental partitioning of microplastics in dynamic near-shore marine environments, as well as the specific pathways and consequences of the physical and chemical impacts of microplastics on marine species populations and overall marine ecosystem health.

Across the United States, recreational freshwater fisheries are not only an important leisure activity, but can also provide a relatively inexpensive source of protein in local diets. However, recreational freshwater fisheries are generally not well-monitored in terms of fish consumption vs. catch and release, nor are all recreational surface waters regularly monitored for the presence of potentially harmful contaminants in water or fishes. In six urban lakes that support recreational fisheries in Phoenix, Arizona, a majority of surveyed anglers reported eating recreationally caught fishes, even though they thought the water might be polluted. Surface water samples collected from the six urban recreational fishery lakes showed varying levels of organic contaminants, including pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and phthalates. As many Phoenix urban recreational fisheries lakes and ponds are located in low income and high minority neighborhoods, the results of this pilot study could be used to inform urban fisheries management and other agencies of the potential need for fish consumption advisories, inform actions to improve water quality in urban lakes and ponds that support urban fisheries, and support further research and monitoring, in order to reduce potential risks to public health.

The island nations and territories of the South Pacific are facing a number of pressing environmental concerns, including solid waste management and coastal pollution. Here we provide baseline information on the presence and concentration of heavy metals and selected organic contaminants (pesticides, PAHs, phthalates) in 7 coastal streams and in surface waters adjacent to the Futiga landfill in American Samoa. All sampled stream sediments contained high concentrations of lead, and some of mercury. Several coastal stream waters showed relatively high concentrations of diethyl phthalate and of organophosphate pesticides, above chronic toxicity values for fish and other aquatic organisms. Parathion, which has been banned by the US Environmental Protection Agency since 2006, was detected in several stream sites. Increased monitoring and initiatives to limit non-point source land-based pollution will greatly improve the state of freshwater and coastal resources, as well as reduce risks to human health in American Samoa.

Identification, understanding and prediction of the factors that drive species to heightened risk of extinction are important goals for conservation, especially since few areas on the planet remain unaffected by human activities. Global extinction risk assessments of an entire family of ecologically complex marine fishes (family: Sparidae), using the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List process, showed that 8.6% (13 species) of sparids are threatened. Intense fishing pressure and habitat destruction are the main reasons for the observed population declines. A further 7.9% (12 species) are classified as Near Threatened. The majority of the sparids (69.5%) are assessed as Least Concern, and these tended to have smaller body sizes, more widespread distributions, and shorter life spans. The remaining 21 species (13.9%) are listed as Data Deficient. In addition to presenting the first global assessment of sparid extinction risk, a Random Forest model identified correlates of extinction risk in the Sparidae using 33 biological and threat variables. The model correctly classified up to 90% of Red List category placements and showed complex interactions between intrinsic and extrinsic predictors. Larger body size was the most important predictor of extinction risk. Sparids with greater maximum sizes, ages, and turnover rates are at higher extinction risk. Conversely, lower area of occupancy and depth limit confer elevated risk. This analysis adds to the growing body of predictive extinction risk models in marine fishes and presents an opportunity to identify and mitigate threats affecting similar groups of highly-valued and ecologically important marine fishes.

A comprehensive understanding of the status of marine organisms in the Gulf of Mexico is critical to the conservation and improved management of marine biodiversity in the region. Threats and extinction risk, based on application of the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria at the global level, were analyzed for 1,300 Gulf of Mexico marine species. These species include all known marine mammals, sea birds, marine reptiles, cartilaginous fishes, bony shorefishes, corals, mangroves, seagrasses and complete clades of select invertebrates. Analyses showed that 6% of these species are threatened, 2% Near Threatened, 9% Data Deficient, and 83% Least Concern. However, the majority of these species are not endemic to the Gulf, and therefore are globally impacted by threats that may or may not be particularly intense within the Gulf. For example, many of these species are impacted by fisheries in much of their global range; however, the intensity of fishing pressure varies across their ranges, and some of these exploited species are well managed in the Gulf of Mexico. Other anthropogenic impacts, including industrial development, pollution, and habitat loss also vary in intensity across species’ global ranges. Here we provide recommendations for interpreting the application of global IUCN Red List Categories at the sub-global/regional scale, while highlighting conservation measures needed for marine species specific to the Gulf region.

The Philippines is currently ranked as the third top producer of plastic wastes, yet little research has been conducted on marine plastic pollution in this fishery-dependent, developing country. This study is the first in the nation to quantify and characterize microplastics ingested by a commercially important fish, the rabbitfish (Siganus fuscescens), in the coastal areas of Negros Oriental, central Philippines. Across all sites, the diversity of microplastic polymer types was highest in the guts of S. fuscescens from Dumaguete, a densely populated city. Microplastic particles extracted from subtidal sediment samples from Silliman Beach in Dumaguete were dominated by semi-synthetic microfibers (rayon), probably from clothing and textiles. However, these microplastic types were absent in the guts of fish, likely due to the different location and character of their feeding habitats. This study confirms for the first time the presence and diversity of microplastics in an edible finfish in the Philippines.

In International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List assessments, extent of occurrence (EOO) is a key measure of extinction risk. However, the way assessors estimate EOO from maps of species’ distributions is inconsistent among assessments of different species and among major taxonomic groups. Assessors often estimate EOO from the area of mapped distribution, but these maps often exclude areas that are not habitat in idiosyncratic ways and are not created at the same spatial resolutions. We assessed the impact on extinction risk categories of applying different methods (minimum convex polygon, alpha hull) for estimating EOO for 21,763 species of mammals, birds, and amphibians. Overall, the percentage of threatened species requiring down listing to a lower category of threat (taking into account other Red List criteria under which they qualified) spanned 11–13% for all species combined (14–15% for mammals, 7–8% for birds, and 12–15% for amphibians). These down listings resulted from larger estimates of EOO and depended on the EOO calculation method. Using birds as an example, we found that 14% of threatened and near threatened species could require down listing based on the minimum convex polygon (MCP) approach, an approach that is now recommended by IUCN. Other metrics (such as alpha hull) had marginally smaller impacts. Our results suggest that uniformly applying the MCP approach may lead to a one-time down listing of hundreds of species but ultimately ensure consistency across assessments and realign the calculation of EOO with the theoretical basis on which the metric was founded.

Governments have committed to conserving 17% of terrestrial and 10% of marine environments globally, especially “areas of particular importance for biodiversity” through “ecologically representative” Protected Area (PA) systems or other “area-based conservation measures”, while individual countries have committed to conserve 3–50% of their land area. We estimate that PAs currently cover 14.6% of terrestrial and 2.8% of marine extent, but 59–68% of ecoregions, 77–78% of important sites for biodiversity, and 57% of 25,380 species have inadequate coverage. The existing 19.7 million km 2 terrestrial PA network needs only 3.3 million km 2 to be added to achieve 17% terrestrial coverage. However, it would require nearly doubling to achieve, costefficiently, coverage targets for all countries, ecoregions, important sites, and species. Poorer countries have the largest relative shortfalls. Such extensive and rapid expansion of formal PAs is unlikely to be achievable. Greater focus is therefore needed on alternative approaches, including community- and privately managed sites and other effective area-based conservation measures.

Europe has a long tradition of exploiting marine fishes and is promoting marine economic activity through its Blue Growth strategy. This increase in anthropogenic pressure, along with climate change, threatens the biodiversity of fishes and food security. Here, we examine the conservation status of 1,020 species of European marine fishes and identify factors that contribute to their extinction risk. Large fish species (greater than 1.5 m total length) are most at risk; half of these are threatened with extinction, predominantly sharks, rays and sturgeons. This analysis was based on the latest International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) European regional Red List of marine fishes, which was coherent with assessments of the status of fish stocks carried out independently by fisheries management agencies: no species classified by IUCN as threatened were considered sustainable by these agencies. A remarkable geographic divergence in stock status was also evident: in northern Europe, most stocks were not overfished, whereas in the Mediterranean Sea, almost all stocks were overfished. As Europe proceeds with its sustainable Blue Growth agenda, two main issues stand out as needing priority actions in relation to its marine fishes: the conservation of marine fish megafauna and the sustainability of Mediterranean fish stocks. Marine fishes exhibit high biodiversity 1,2 and have been culturally and nutritionally important throughout human history 3 . Europe, in particular, has a well-documented history of exploiting marine fish populations, written records of which commence in the classical works of ancient Greece. Although this historical exploitation has undoubtedly altered populations 4,5 and changed many seascapes 6 , marine defaunation in the region has not been as great as in terrestrial systems 7 . However, the use of ocean space and resources is increasing due to Europe’s Blue Growth strategy 8 , the nutritional requirements of an expanding human population are growing 9,10 and marine ecosystems will experience unusually rapid changes in future due to climate change 11,12 . Consequently there are imminent threats both to European marine biodiversity and fish resources 13 . It is important, therefore, to assess the threats of extinction to fish species and to ensure consistency in the management approach by the various agencies involved. We analysed data on the conservation status of 1,020 species of Europe’s marine fishes from the recent International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List assessments 14 to identify characteristics that make Europe’s fishes most susceptible to extinction risk. We then compared the Red List with 115 fish stock assessments (of 31 species) made by intergovernmental agencies charged with providing advice on the exploitation of commercial fishes. Previous comparisons of this sort applied criteria under various modelling assumptions 15,16, 17 or limited the comparison to biomass reference points 18 .

Mudskippers are distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical Indo-West Pacific, with only one species, Periophthalmus barbarus, present in the eastern central Atlantic. Mudskippers have been proposed as potential bioindicators of pollutants in mangrove and other coastal areas. Mangrove forests provide critical wildlife habitats, support coastal fisheries, filter sediments and pollution, protect coastal zones from flooding and erosion, and sequester carbon. The burrowing activity of many species found in mangrove forests, including mudskippers, leads to fine-scale habitat heterogeneity, localized oxygenation of soil, and more dynamic flows of dissolved nutrients from the soil matrix. Mangrove ecosystems are thought to be the most sensitive and vulnerable of tropical habitats to petrochemical or oil contamination. Mangrove habitats are removed or deteriorated by conversion to agriculture, urban, and tourism areas, and because land is limited, sites for solid waste disposal. In Oceania, mangrove-associated fisheries are of considerable importance, as many of the region's national economies and households are dependent on marine resources that utilize mangroves.

Nature Ecology & Evolution 1, 0170 (2017); published 26 May 2017; corrected 12 June 2017. In the original version of this Article, the European Commission was mistakenly included as an affiliation for Christos D. Maravelias. His contribution to this work was exclusively completed while at the Hellenic Centre for Marine Research.

The Red List of marine bony fishes of the Eastern Central Atlantic (ECA) is a review of the conservation status of all native marine bony fishes in ECA according to the global Categories and Criteria of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It identifies those species that are threatened with extinction at the global level and occur within the ECA region. This comprehensive assessment, which is the first of its kind in the ECA, aims to provide improved knowledge of species presence and extinction risk status for the purposes of guiding conservation actions and improved policies for these species both globally and regionally.

The conservation status of 845 zooxanthellate reef-building coral species was assessed by using International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List Criteria. Of the 704 species that could be assigned conservation status, 32.8% are in categories with elevated risk of extinction. Declines in abundance are associated with bleaching and diseases driven by elevated sea surface temperatures, with extinction risk further exacerbated by local-scale anthropogenic disturbances. The proportion of corals threatened with extinction has increased dramatically in recent decades and exceeds that of most terrestrial groups. The Caribbean has the largest proportion of corals in high extinction risk categories, whereas the Coral Triangle (western Pacific) has the highest proportion of species in all categories of elevated extinction risk. Our results emphasize the widespread plight of coral reefs and the urgent need to enact conservation measures.

Marine conservation activities around the globe are largely undertaken in the absence of comprehensive species-specific information. To address this gap, complete regional species assemblages of major marine taxa are being progressively assessed against the Categories and Criteria of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threat- ened Species. The present study is the first analysis of entire major components of the biota of a large marine biogeographic region conducted in the Tropical Eastern Pacific (TEP). It is based on recently completed IUCN Red List assessments for all known species of bony and cartilaginous shorefishes, corals, mangroves, and seagrasses in the TEP. Twelve percent of the >1600 species assessed are in threatened categories, indicative of elevated extinction risk. Spatial analysis of all assessed taxonomic groups, including previous IUCN Red List assessments for seabirds, marine mammals, and marine turtles, highlights specific geographical areas of elevated threatened- species richness. The distribution of threatened species in the TEP is primarily linked to areas with high rates of overfishing, habitat loss, and increasing El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event impacts, as well as oceanic islands with high stochastic risk factors for endemic species. Species assigned to the highest threat categories have life history traits that likely decrease their resilience to various regional and site-specific threats. Comprehensive information in the form of IUCN Red List assessments combined with spatial analysis will greatly help to refine both site- and species- specific marine conservation priorities in the TEP.

Hagfishes represent an ancient and unique evolutionary lineage that plays an important role in the cycling of organic matter and other nutrients to maintain the overall health of the ecosystems they inhabit. Fisheries worldwide directly profit from the harvesting of hagfishes for leather and food, as well as from the positive habitat effects hagfishes provide for other target species. Overexploitation and destructive fishing practices are major threats to several hagfish species, especially those with restricted or small distributions. In order to evaluate the effect of these threats on populations, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List Categories and Criteria were applied to assess the probability of extinction for all of the world's known hagfish species. Nine of the 76 hagfish species (12%) were determined to be in threatened categories, indicating an elevated risk of extinction. Particular areas and species of concern include southern Australia where 100% of hagfish species present were determined to be at an elevated risk of extinction and the coast of southern Brazil where up to 50% of hagfish species present are at an elevated risk of extinction. Also of concern, are the species found in the East China Sea, Pacific coast of Japan, and coastal Taiwan where as many as 50% of hagfish species are threatened with extinction. The loss of hagfish species will have detrimental effects on ecosystems as a whole as well as the fisheries that depend on them, especially in the many areas around the world that have low hagfish species diversity. Better information, data, regulation and management of hagfish fisheries and other threats to hagfish populations are urgently needed to ensure the survival of these important species. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Seagrasses, a functional group of marine flowering plants rooted in the world’s coastal oceans, support marine food webs and provide essential habitat for many coastal species, playing a critical role in the equilibrium of coastal ecosystems and human livelihoods. For the first time, the probability of extinction is determined for the world’s seagrass species under the Categories and Criteria of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. Several studies have indicated that seagrass habitat is declining worldwide. Our focus is to determine the risk of extinction for individual seagrass species, a 4-year process involving seagrass experts internationally, compilation of data on species’ status, populations, and distribution, and review of the biology and ecology of each of the world’s seagrass species. Ten seagrass species are at elevated risk of extinction (14% of all seagrass species), with three species qualifying as Endangered. Seagrass species loss and degradation of seagrass biodiversity will have serious repercussions for marine biodiversity and the human populations that depend upon the resources and ecosystem services that seagrasses provide.

A growing body of evidence for chemical contamination in seafood has raised concerns about the safety of seafood consumption. Available data also indicate that some fishery stocks that are overharvested are also the most laden with certain contaminants. Flame retardant chemicals, used in textiles, plastics, and other products are a class of these seafood contaminants that are particularly concerning as they are linked to cancer and endocrine disruption. To investigate the potentially useful relationship between fishery sustainability and flame retardant concentration in seafood, we used polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) as a case study to assess how fishery status and species vulnerability coincide with levels of brominated flame retardants found in the tissue of popularly consumed fish. While none of our metrics of sustainability showed strong relationships to PBDE contamination rates, our results suggest that the same intrinsic biological and ecological traits, which facilitate the uptake of chemicals, also contribute to how species respond to fishing pressures. Given the dual challenges of ensuring seafood sustainability and protecting human health, we then explored the implications of bundling the public good of conservation with the private good of health.

Knowledge of mammalian diversity is still surprisingly disparate, both regionally and taxonomically. Here, we present a comprehensive assessment of the conservation status and distribution of the world's mammals. Data, compiled by 1700+ experts, cover all 5487 species, including marine mammals. Global macroecological patterns are very different for land and marine species but suggest common mechanisms driving diversity and endemism across systems. Compared with land species, threat levels are higher among marine mammals, driven by different processes (accidental mortality and pollution, rather than habitat loss), and are spatially distinct (peaking in northern oceans, rather than in Southeast Asia). Marine mammals are also disproportionately poorly known. These data are made freely available to support further scientific developments and conservation action.

Over the past two decades, various organizations have promoted cacao agroforestry systems as a tool for biodiversity conservation in the Bribri-Cabecar indigenous territories of Talamanca, Costa Rica. Despite these efforts, cacao production is declining and is being replaced by less diverse systems that have lower biodiversity value. Understanding the factors that influence household land use is essential in order to promote cacao agroforestry systems as a viable livelihood strategy. We incorporate elements of livelihoods analyses and socioeconomic data to examine cacao agroforestry systems as a livelihood strategy compared with other crops in Talamanca. Several factors help to explain the abandonment of cacao agroforestry systems and their conversion to other land uses. These factors include shocks and trends beyond the control of households such as crop disease and population growth and concentration, as well as structures and processes such as the shift from a subsistence to a cash-based economy, relative prices of cacao and other cash crops, and the availability of market and government support for agriculture. We argue that a livelihoods approach provides a useful framework to examine the decline of cacao agroforestry systems and generates insights on how to stem the rate of their conversion to less diverse land uses.

Along the southeastern coast of Costa Rica, a variety of pesticides are intensively applied to produce export-quality plantains and bananas. In this region, and in other agricultural areas, fish kills are often documented by local residents and/or in the national news. This study examines principal exposure pathways, measured environmental concentrations, and selected toxicity thresholds of the three most prevalent pesticides (chlorpyrifos, terbufos, and difenoconazole) to construct a deterministic risk assessment for fish mortality. Comparisons of observed pesticide concentrations, along with estimated biological effects and observations during actual fish kills, highlight gaps in knowledge in correlating pesticide environmental concentration and toxicity in tropical environments. Observations of fish kill events and measured pesticide concentrations in the field, along with other water quality indicators, suggest that a number of environmental conditions can interact to cause fish mortality and that current species toxicity datasets may not be applicable for estimating toxicological or other synergistic effects, especially in tropical environments.

In International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List assessments, extent of occurrence (EOO) is a key measure of extinction risk. However, the way assessors estimate EOO from maps of species' distributions is inconsistent among assessments of different species and among major taxonomic groups. Assessors often estimate EOO from the area of mapped distribution, but these maps often exclude areas that are not habitat in idiosyncratic ways and are not created at the same spatial resolutions. We assessed the impact on extinction risk categories of applying different methods (minimum convex polygon, alpha hull) for estimating EOO for 21,763 species of mammals, birds, and amphibians. Overall, the percentage of threatened species requiring down listing to a lower category of threat (taking into account other Red List criteria under which they qualified) spanned 11-13% for all species combined (14-15% for mammals, 7-8% for birds, and 12-15% for amphibians). These down listings resulted from larger estimates of EOO and depended on the EOO calculation method. Using birds as an example, we found that 14% of threatened and near threatened species could require down listing based on the minimum convex polygon (MCP) approach, an approach that is now recommended by IUCN. Other metrics (such as alpha hull) had marginally smaller impacts. Our results suggest that uniformly applying the MCP approach may lead to a one-time down listing of hundreds of species but ultimately ensure consistency across assessments and realign the calculation of EOO with the theoretical basis on which the metric was founded.

Extinction risk has been linked to biological and anthropogenic variables. Prediction of extinction risk in valuable fauna may not follow mainstream drivers when species are exploited for international markets. We use results from an International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List assessment of extinction risk in all 377 known species of sea cucumber within the order Aspidochirotida, many of which are exploited worldwide as luxury seafood for Asian markets. Extinction risk was primarily driven by high market value, compounded by accessibility and familiarity (well known) in the marketplace. Extinction risk in marine animals often relates closely to body size and small geographical range but our study shows a clear exception. Conservation must not lose sight of common species, especially those of high value. Greater human population density and poorer economies in the geographical ranges of endangered species illustrate that anthropogenic variables can also predict extinction risks in marine animals. Local-level regulatory measures must prevent opportunistic exploitation of high-value species. Trade agreements, for example CITES, may aid conservation but will depend on international technical support to low-income tropical countries. The high proportion of data deficient species also stresses a need for research on the ecology and population demographics of unglamorous invertebrates.

Mangroves are unique plant species found in tropical and subtropical estuarine and nearshore marine regions worldwide. Mangrove species have several physiological adaptations to saline, water-saturated soils, including viviparous or cryptoviviparous seeds that disperse by water, and salt-exclusion or salt-excretion capabilities to cope with high salt concentrations in nearshore saturated soils and sediments. Many species also have specialized aerial roots, or pneumatophores, that enable oxygenation of roots in water-logged soils. Species restricted to tropical intertidal habitat have been defined as "true mangrove" species, while those not exclusive to this habitat are sometimes referred to as "mangrove associates" (Lugo & Snedaker, 1974). Others include as mangroves any tree, shrub, palm, or ground fern exceeding 0.5 min height and which normally grows in the intertidal zone of tropical coastal or estuarine environments (Duke, 1992). In view of the global variety of mangrove types and their :floristics, there are approximately 70 species of mangroves, which are quite taxonomically diverse, as they represent 17 families (Table 2.1). The Mangrove Reference Database and Herbarium provides a larger overview of all known species, subspecies and hybrids (Masso i Aleman et al ., 2010). Compared to other forest types, mangrove forests generally lack an understory and usually exhibit distinct zones of species (Figure 2.r) based on variation in elevation, salinity, and wave action (Duke et al ., 1998). Many species are more common in environmental conditions characterized by the low or high intertidal zone, or in the downstream or upstream estuarine zones. For example, species found primarily in the upstream estuarine or high intertidal region often have specific freshwater-dominated habitat preference, while other species that have higher inundation tolerance can be found in the downstream estuarine or low intertidal zone and along beaches. However, zonation or correlation with environmental gradients is not always apparent and can be easily disrupted by anthropogenic disturbance (Ellison et al ., 2000). All mangroves disperse their propagules by water, and many mangrove species produce seedlings through vivipary. For many of the mangrove species that reproduce through vivipary or cryptovivipary, an embryo remains on the parent tree for months sometimes before it detaches, germinates, and grows roots (Tomlinson, 1986; Hogarth, 2007). The hypocotyls of some species are more adapted to long-distance dispersal and exhibit a period of postponed dormancy before rooting. A few mangrove species do not reproduce through this process, but rather disperse more conventionally via floating fruits and seeds (Tomlinson, 1986; Hogarth, 2007).

Baird's tapir (Tapirus bairdii) is currently endangered throughout its neotropical range with an expected population decline >50% in the next 30 years. We present the first density estimation of Baird's tapir for the Talamanca mountains of Costa Rica, and one of the first for the country. Ten stations with paired cameras were established in Valle del Silencio within Parque Internacional La Amistad (PILA). Seventy-seven tapir pictures of 15 individuals comprising 25 capture-recapture events were analyzed using mark-recapture techniques. The 100% minimum convex polygon of the sampled area was 5.7 km(2) and the effective sampled area using half mean maximum distances moved by tapirs was 7.16 km(2) . We estimated a tapir density of 2.93 individuals/km(2) which represents the highest density reported for this species. Intermountain valleys can represent unique and important habitats for large mammal species. However, the extent of isolation of this population, potentially constrained by steep slopes of the cordillera, remains unknown. Further genetic and movement studies are required to understand meta-population dynamics and connectivity between lowland and highland areas for Baird's tapir conservation in Costa Rica.

Parrotfishes and surgeonfishes perform important functional roles in the dynamics of coral reef systems. This is a consequence of their varied feeding behaviors ranging from targeted consumption of living plant material (primarily surgeonfishes) to feeding on detrital aggregates that are either scraped from the reef surface or excavated from the deeper reef substratum (primarily parrotfishes). Increased fishing pressure and widespread habitat destruction have led to population declines for several species of these two groups. Species-specific data on global distribution, population status, life history characteristics, and major threats were compiled for each of the 179 known species of parrotfishes and surgeonfishes to determine the likelihood of extinction of each species under the Categories and Criteria of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Due in part to the extensive distributions of most species and the life history traits exhibited in these two families, only three (1.7%) of the species are listed at an elevated risk of global extinction. The majority of the parrotfishes and surgeonfishes (86%) are listed as Least Concern, 10% are listed as Data Deficient and 1% are listed as Near Threatened. The risk of localized extinction, however, is higher in some areas, particularly in the Coral Triangle region. The relatively low proportion of species globally listed in threatened Categories is highly encouraging, and some conservation successes are attributed to concentrated conservation efforts. However, with the growing realization of man's profound impact on the planet, conservation actions such as improved marine reserve networks, more stringent fishing regulations, and continued monitoring of the population status at the species and community levels are imperative for the prevention of species loss in these groups of important and iconic coral reef fishes.

Fourteen marine species in the Gulf of Mexico are protected by the US Endangered Species Act, the Marine Mammal Protection Act, and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. As the British Petroleum oil spill recovery and remediation proceed, species internationally recognized as having an elevated risk of extinction should also receive priority for protection and restoration efforts, whether or not they have specific legal protection. Forty additional marine species-unprotected by any federal laws-occur in the Gulf and are listed as threatened on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List. The Red List assessment process scientifically evaluates species' global status and is therefore a key mechanism for transboundary impact assessments and for coordinating international conservation action. Environmental impact assessments conducted for future offshore oil and gas development should incorporate available data on globally threatened species, including species on the IUCN Red List. This consideration is particularly important because US Natural Resource Damage Assessments may not account for injury to highly migratory, globally threatened species. © 2011 by American Institute of Biological Sciences. All rights reserved. Fil: Campagna, Claudio. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Wildlife Conservation Society; Estados Unidos. International Union For Conservation Of Nature And Natural Resources; Francia Fil: Short, Frederick T.. International Union For Conservation Of Nature And Natural Resources; Francia. Hampton University; Estados Unidos Fil: Polidoro, Beth A.. International Union For Conservation Of Nature And Natural Resources; Francia. Old Dominion University; Estados Unidos Fil: McManus, Roger. Old Dominion University; Estados Unidos. Perry Institute For Marine Science; Estados Unidos Fil: Collette, Bruce B.. National Museum of Natural History; Estados Unidos. International Union For Conservation Of Nature And Natural Resources; Francia Fil: Pilcher, Nicolas J.. Marine Research Foundation; Malasia. International Union For Conservation Of Nature And Natural Resources; Francia Fil: Mitcheson, Yvonne Sadovy De. The University Of Hong Kong; Hong Kong. International Union For Conservation Of Nature And Natural Resources; Francia Fil: Stuart, Simon N.. United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre; Estados Unidos. Al Ain Wildlife Park And Resort; Emiratos Arabes Unidos. University of Bath; Reino Unido Fil: Carpenter, Kent E.. Old Dominion University; Estados Unidos. International Union For Conservation Of Nature And Natural Resources; Francia

Given the economic and cultural dependence on the marine environment in Oceania and a rapidly expanding human population, many marine species populations are in decline and may be vulnerable to extinction from a number of local and regional threats. IUCN Red List assessments, a widely used system for quantifying threats to species and assessing species extinction risk, have been completed for 1190 marine species in Oceania to date, including all known species of corals, mangroves, seagrasses, sea snakes, marine mammals, sea birds, sea turtles, sharks, and rays present in Oceania, plus all species in five important perciform fish groups. Many of the species in these groups are threatened by the modification or destruction of coastal habitats, overfishing from direct or indirect exploitation, pollution, and other ecological or environmental changes associated with climate change. Spatial analyses of threatened species highlight priority areas for both site- and species-specific conservation action. Although increased knowledge and use of newly available IUCN Red List assessments for marine species can greatly improve conservation priorities for marine species in Oceania, many important fish groups are still in urgent need of assessment.

Using data for 25,780 species categorized on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List, we present an assessment of the status of the world’s vertebrates. One-fifth of species are classified as Threatened, and we show that this figure is increasing: On average, 52 species of mammals, birds, and amphibians move one category closer to extinction each year. However, this overall pattern conceals the impact of conservation successes, and we show that the rate of deterioration would have been at least one-fifth again as much in the absence of these. Nonetheless, current conservation efforts remain insufficient to offset the main drivers of biodiversity loss in these groups: agricultural expansion, logging, overexploitation, and invasive alien species. Fil: Hoffmann, Michael. International Union for Conservation Nature; Suiza Fil: Hilton Taylor, Craig. Species Programme; Reino Unido Fil: Angulo, Ariadne. Species Programme; Reino Unido Fil: Böhm, Monika. The Zoological Society Of London; Reino Unido Fil: Brooks, Thomas M.. University of the Philippines Los Baños; Filipinas Fil: Lavilla, Esteban Orlando. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Tucumán; Argentina Fil: Tognelli, Marcelo Fabio. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Áridas. Provincia de Mendoza. Instituto Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Áridas. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Instituto Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Áridas; Argentina Fil: Baldi, Ricardo. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Centro Nacional Patagónico; Argentina Fil: Lavilla, Esteban Orlando. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico - Tucumán. Unidad Ejecutora Lillo; Argentina Fil: Blanc, Julian J.. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo; Argentina Fil: Lichtenstein, Gabriela. Secretaría de Cultura de la Nación. Dirección Nacional de Cultura y Museos. Instituto Nacional de Antropología y Pensamiento Latinoamericano; Argentina Fil: Valenti, Sara V.. Universidad Nacional del Comahue; Argentina Fil: Williamson, Elizabeth A.. University of Stirling; Reino Unido Fil: Xie, Feng. Chinese Academy of Sciences; República de China Fil: Young, Bruce E.. Stony Brook University; Estados Unidos Fil: Akçakaya, H. Resit. African Elephant Specialist Group; Kenia Fil: Leon Bemu. Wildlife Conservation Society; Estados Unidos Fil: Blackburn, Tim M.. Global Environment Facility; Estados Unidos Fil: Boitani, Luigi. Federal University of Minas Gerais; Brasil Fil: Dublin, Holly T.. Imperial College London; Reino Unido Fil: Claude Gascon,. IUCN; Suiza Fil: Georgina M. Mace. North of England Zoological Society; Reino Unido Fil: Lacher, Thomas E. Jr.. North of England Zoological Society; Reino Unido Fil: Mainka, Susan A.. Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas; Venezuela Fil: McNeely, Jeffery A.. IUCN; Suiza Fil: Mittermeier, Russell A.. Conservation International; Estados Unidos Fil: McGregor Reid, Gordon. North of England Zoological Society; Reino Unido Fil: Rodriguez, Jon Paul. Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas; Venezuela Fil: Rosenberg, Andrew A.. Conservation International; Estados Unidos Fil: Samways, Michael J.. Stellenbosch University; Sudáfrica Fil: Smart, Jane. IUCN; Suiza Fil: Stein, Bruce A.. National Wildlife Federation; Estados Unidos Fil: Stuart, Simon N.. Wildlife Park & Resort; Emiratos Arabes Unidos

Mangrove species are uniquely adapted to tropical and subtropical coasts, and although relatively low in number of species, mangrove forests provide at least US $1.6 billion each year in ecosystem services and support coastal livelihoods worldwide. Globally, mangrove areas are declining rapidly as they are cleared for coastal development and aquaculture and logged for timber and fuel production. Little is known about the effects of mangrove area loss on individual mangrove species and local or regional populations. To address this gap, species-specific information on global distribution, population status, life history traits, and major threats were compiled for each of the 70 known species of mangroves. Each species' probability of extinction was assessed under the Categories and Criteria of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Eleven of the 70 mangrove species (16%) are at elevated threat of extinction. Particular areas of geographical concern include the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of Central America, where as many as 40% of mangroves species present are threatened with extinction. Across the globe, mangrove species found primarily in the high intertidal and upstream estuarine zones, which often have specific freshwater requirements and patchy distributions, are the most threatened because they are often the first cleared for development of aquaculture and agriculture. The loss of mangrove species will have devastating economic and environmental consequences for coastal communities, especially in those areas with low mangrove diversity and high mangrove area or species loss. Several species at high risk of extinction may disappear well before the next decade if existing protective measures are not enforced.

The use of pesticides in the cultivation of cash crops such as banana and plantain is increasing, in Costa Rica and worldwide. Agrochemical use and occupational and environmental exposures in export banana production have been documented in some parts of Central America. However, the extent of agrochemical use, agricultural pest knowledge, and economic components in plantain production are largely unknown in Costa Rica, especially in remote, high-poverty areas such as the Bribri-Cabecar Indigenous Territories. Our objective was to integrate a rapid rural appraisal of indigenous farmer pesticide application practices and pest knowledge with a cost-benefit analysis of plantain production in the Bribri-Cabecar Indigenous Territories, for the development of better agricultural management practices and improved regulatory infrastructure. Interviews conducted with 75 households in 5 indigenous communities showed that over 60% of participants grew plantain with agrochemicals. Of these plantain farmers, over 97% used the insecticide chlorpyrifos, and 84% applied nematicides, 64% herbicides, and 22% fungicides, with only 31% of participants reporting the use of some type of protective clothing during application. The banana weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus Germar) was ranked as the most important agricultural pest by 85% of participants, yet only 28% could associate the adult and larval form. A cost-benefit analysis conducted with a separate group of 26 plantain farmers identified several national markets and one export market for plantain production in the Indigenous Territories. Yearly income averaged US$6200/ha and yearly expenses averaged US$1872/ha, with an average cost-benefit ratio of 3.67 for plantain farmers. Farmers applied an average of 9.7 kg a.i./ha/yr of pesticide products and 375 kg/ha/yr of fertilizer, but those who sold their fruit to the national markets applied more nematicides, herbicides, and fertilizers than those who sold primarily to export markets, suggesting a lack of appropriate application knowledge. Results indicate that the quantity of agrochemicals applied in plantain cultivation is less than that applied in export banana, but the absence of appropriate agrochemical application practices in plantain cultivation may pose serious risks to human and environmental health. Culturally appropriate farmer education and certification programs are needed as well as the development of safe-handling practices, regulatory infrastructure, and adequate agrochemical storage, transport, and waste disposal facilities. Long-term solutions however, are dependent on the development of policies and infrastructure that support non-chemical pest management, alternatives to pesticides, and the identification of organic plantain markets.

Coral reefs can better recover from bleaching events when stresses resulting from human activities are minimized. [Also see Report by Gilmour et al. ]