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Collective housing (CH) is undergoing a revival in Belgium. Since 2009, the Flemish Government Architect and his team have been advocating CH, stressing its importance as a task for architects given the demand for affordable housing and the need to reduce the environmental impact of housing. This support for CH has converged with the work of the non-profit citizen organization Samenhuizen (“Living together”) and the ad hoc initiatives taken by individual households and architects. In the Netherlands too, where there is a longer tradition of CH, the phenomenon is once more on the rise because of the housing crisis. As it is a developing topic, the terminology used for CH is also evolving. Drawing on publications on the subject in both Belgium and the Netherlands as well as on interviews with relevant stakeholders, this article sheds light on two widely published cases in both countries (pioneering and current, greenfield and conversion). These cases are compared in regard to thematic areas, based on an extensive literature study on collaborative housing by Lang et al. (2018). In addition to such aspects as the balance between “individuality” and the “collective,” we compare the role played by architects in both countries. Besides similarities, we show that the historical context, and especially the housing policy of each country, has a great influence and that the role of the architect is essential in the development of older and contemporary cohousing projects.

Was verraten literarische Übersetzungen über die komplexen kulturellen und historischen Verflechtungen von Belgien und Deutschland? Zur Beantwortung dieser Frage bezieht Anja van de Pol-Tegge erstmals beide belgischen Ausgangssprachen - Französisch und Niederländisch - in ein innovatives Forschungsformat ein. Durch detaillierte Übersetzungsanalysen von Texten namhafter Autor*innen wie Hugo Claus und Amélie Nothomb gibt sie Aufschluss über epistemische Konfigurationen im deutschen Zielkontext. Über Bilder der Fremdwahrnehmung und Selbstidentifikation bildet sie die Wirkmacht sozio-historischer Diskurse auf belgische Literaturen ab und verdichtet diese zu Tendenzen der Translationsdynamik.

The challenging and reframing of dominant narratives have been recognized as crucial to the regeneration of stigmatized areas. This article builds upon a digital storytelling process in the social estate of Peterbos, Brussels, to investigate how the counterstories of inhabitants challenge the “master narrative.” The counterstories foreground the spatial agency of tenants, the (dis)enabling role of space, and the difficult relationship with social housing companies. The article concludes that counterstories not only reveal dominant spatial imaginaries about high-rise estates but also have the potential to foster a more situated and experiential understanding of the relationship between people and space. However, it is important to note that digital storytelling is not a substitute for inclusive planning. Critical engagement with ongoing planning processes remains crucial.

Dispersed territories such as Flanders (Belgium) have been amongst others described as layered territories, as a palimpsest landscape, or as both a selective and a-selective infill of the territory. In the constant re-editing and change of this territory, historical remnants remain visible and often form a departing point for further adaptations and changes. One of these remnants, the moated farmstead, has evolved from a historical (proto)type to a common typology in South-West Flanders and enabled inhabiting the territory dispersedly. Moated farmsteads are typically composed of a series of different buildings and are surrounded by an artificial water body. The moat formed the central point of a larger land management system. Nowadays, many of these farmsteads still exist, however, over time they lost their original purpose and transformed into a variety of uses. The design of a prototype, i.e., a first model later evolving into a type, a recurring model, as an architectural object can simultaneously relate to a larger theoretical reflection on the scale of the territory. Subsequently, these farmsteads lead to the question: What (proto)types have been developed to demonstrate the uniqueness of the relation between the land/labour/living in a dispersed territory? Can we re-interpret the moated farmstead as a new (proto)type to establish a more sustainable way of urbanising the countryside in a dispersed context? Therefore, this article first documents the historical figure of the moated farmstead as an architectural object, socio-economic and political organisation, and ecological land management, and documents its change throughout time. Then, a reflection is built on how, at the time of their emergence, these moated farmsteads were an exponent of a sustainable and ground-breaking type that enabled a dispersed settlement pattern. Finally, the potential of the farmstead as a new prototype for a twenty-first-century dispersed territory is discussed.

Research on public opinion and international security has extensively examined attitudes toward nuclear weapons, but the diffusion of basic knowledge about nuclear weapons among the everyday citizens has nevertheless been mostly missed. This study proposes a working definition and advances a measurement model of knowledge on nuclear weapons in the general public. It analyzes data from two novel surveys conducted in 2018 (N = 6559) and 2019 (N = 6227) where respondents from Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, and the United Kingdom answered a web survey on attitudes and factual knowledge on nuclear weapons. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analytic models are used to examine the dimensionality and to assess the measurement invariance of a scale of knowledge about nuclear weapons. A bifactor measurement model, where a strong general factor represents the construct of interest and specific factors account for the presence of testlets due to questionnaire design, is established and validated. Configural, metric, and scalar invariance are established across the eight samples. The findings indicate that knowledge about nuclear weapons in the general, non-expert public can be reliably measured cross-nationally.

Throughout its 40-year history, the Vlaams Belang (VB, Flemish Interest) has established itself as an important player within the Belgian party system, albeit with significant electoral fluctuations. In 2019, it became the second largest party in Flanders. The party developed and maintained a mass-party organisation by investing significantly in local party branches and in a rigid vertically articulated structure. It relies heavily on social media, particularly Facebook, to communicate to supporters beyond the more limited group of party members. Using both modern and traditional tools, VB representatives aim to create communities of supporters bonded to the party, facilitating dissemination of the party’s messages. Despite this investment in a grassroots organisation, the VB’s decision-making remains highly centralised. Social media and local branches allow informal consideration of members’ views, but the party has not created significant mechanisms for internal democracy. While it is often claimed that political parties have moved away from the “mass-party” model, this article demonstrates that the VB still maintains characteristics of the mass party, albeit with a modern twist. New social media tools facilitate attempts to foster communities and disseminate party messages among a wider group of supporters, both formal members and more informal sympathisers.

The built and living environment in the Flemish region in Belgium is evolving noticeably. It is densifying at an ever-faster pace and, along the way, becoming increasingly unfamiliar to its inhabitants. Many people face profound difficulties in autonomously and positively dealing with such drastic changes, causing their feeling of home to waver. Triggered by these challenges and supported by the local authority of a Flemish town, the experimental and co-creative art project ‘Mount Murals’ set out to stimulate new embodied interactions between and among local residents of various ages and backgrounds and with their built environment. These include remembering place-related sentiments, being aware of body language that plays between participants while co-creating and sensing an invigorating stimulus when seeing results. Awakening intrinsic appreciation in people for their own environment and associated social relationships stimulates an inclusive dealing with estranged relationships in space. Referring to the relational neuroscience principles attachment, co-creating and co-regulating as a modus of relational resonating, we explore how and under which conditions Mount Murals’ co-creative art trajectory supports an evolving embodied place attachment, an essential element of the sense of belonging, in participants. By embedding assets inherent to art creation in action research and starting with meaningful everyday objects, Mount Murals carries forward an art expression that considers the co-creation process and its co-creative products as equally important. ispartof: Social Inclusion vol:9 issue:4 pages:116-129 status: Published online

The present study aimed to predict job control (i.e., task discretion) based on class and occupation with skill use as a (hypothesized) mechanism in four Western European countries by using the OECD adult skill survey (PIAAC). The countries were Denmark, Belgium, Italy, and the United Kingdom (UK). The study used a Bayesian approach that included multilevel models combined with measurement models. The study uses the international standard classification of occupations with two digits (clustering variable) as well as the European socioeconomic classification (ESeC) measured with three social classes. The results indicate that greater worker technical skills (computer use) and social skills (e.g., negotiate and influence) predict higher levels of job control. Social classes interact with skills to predict job control (except Belgium). Occupational computer skills predict job control (in Belgium and Italy). In conclusion, the study supports predictions by neo-Durkheimians, neo-Weberians, New Structuralists, and relational approaches to inequality.

Digital transformation has the potential to profoundly change the way public administrations deliver public services to its users. One of the challenges involved in the inter-organizational networks that often govern integrated digital services is to identify what coordination instruments are effective. In this paper we examine this issue through a case study that deals with the transformation of invoicing services in Belgian public administrations at the federal and Flemish (regional) level. We review the coordination instruments and study how they evolved over time. Our findings suggest that transformation (1) might in part depend on the choice of instruments and multiple mechanisms. The mix of appropriate coordination instruments is likely to change as digital transformation objectives and governance challenges evolve over time. (2) Digital transformation might be a step-by-step process involving multiple rounds of digitalization and its specific implementation contingent on the service itself. Die digitale Transformation hat das Potenzial, die Erbringung von Verwaltungsleistungen tiefgreifend zu verändern. Eine der Herausforderungen in organisationsübergreifenden Netzwerken, die integrierte digitale Dienstleistungen steuern, ist die Identifizierung effektiver Koordinationsinstrumente. In diesem Beitrag untersuchen wir diese Frage anhand einer Fallstudie zur Transformation der Rechnungsstellung in der belgischen öffentlichen Verwaltung. Wir untersuchen die Koordinationsinstrumente und ihre Entwicklung. Die Untersuchungsergebnisse deuten zum einen darauf hin, dass Transformation zum Teil von der Wahl der Koordinationsinstrumente und verschiedener Koordinationsmechanismen abhängt. Je nachdem, welche Ziele und Governance-Herausforderungen mit der digitalen Transformation in einem konkreten Fall verbunden sind und wie sie sich über Zeit entwickeln, ist ein unterschiedlicher Mix an Koordinationsinstrumenten geeignet. Zum anderen zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass die digitale Transformation der Verwaltung ein schrittweiser Prozess ist, dessen konkrete Umsetzung von der jeweiligen Dienstleistung abhängt.

In recent decades, many Western European countries introduced parental leave policies to support the work–family combination in families with young children. However, these parental leave schemes often exhibit employment‐based eligibility criteria, so the question arises to which extent social inequalities emerge in the access to parental leave, and as a result thereof also in the uptake of parental leave. Although research on parental leave increasingly addresses the issue of inclusiveness, only a limited number of studies has yet examined individual‐level differentials in parents’, and especially mothers’, eligibility. Using detailed register data, we develop an individual‐level indicator of eligibility in Belgium and deploy it to document differentiation in mothers’ eligibility by age at first birth, partnership status, migration background and education. In addition, we examine to what extent differential eligibility can explain inequalities in parental leave uptake. Our results show that a considerable share of mothers—specifically very young, single, low educated mothers and mothers with a migration background—do not meet the eligibility criteria and thus are structurally excluded from parental leave in Belgium. Furthermore, differential eligibility can account for a large part of the age and educational gradients in parental leave use, as well as differences by migration background. Eligibility cannot (fully) account for lower parental leave use by single mothers and mothers with a Moroccan or Turkish migration background. Our findings suggest that a reconsideration of eligibility criteria may be instrumental in increasing the inclusiveness of parental leave policies.

Researchers on inequalities in representation debate about whether governments represent the preferences of the rich better than those of less affluent citizens. We argue that problems of high‐ and low‐status citizens are treated differently already at the agenda‐setting stage. If affluent and less affluent citizens have different priorities about which issues should be tackled by government, then these divergent group priorities explain why government favors high‐ over low‐status citizens. Due to different levels of visibility, resources and social ties, governments pay more attention to what high‐status citizens consider important in their legislative agenda and pay less attention to the issues of low‐status citizens. We combined three types of data for our research design. First, we extracted the policy priorities (most important issues) for all status groups from Eurobarometer data between 2002 and 2016 for 10 European countries and match this information with data on policy outcomes from the Comparative Agendas Project. We then strengthen our results using a focused comparison of three single country studies over longer time series. We show that a priority gap exists and has representational consequences. Our analysis has important implications for the understanding of the unequal representation of status groups as it sheds light on an important, yet so far unexplored, aspect of the political process. Since the misrepresentation of political agendas occurs at the very beginning of the policy‐making process, the consequences are potentially even more severe than for the unequal treatment of preferences. published

Leseprobe ----- Bibliographie: Schroder, Christian/Zoller, Ulrike: Grenzuberschreitender Kinderschutz in der Grosregion. Fallstricke und Herausforderungen, Diskurs Kindheits- und Jugendforschung / Discourse. Journal of Childhood and Adolescence Research, 4-2020, S. 447-452. https://doi.org/10.3224/diskurs.v15i4.08

This article examines social inclusion in the context of the deinstitutionalisation of mental health care. It draws on a scientific evaluation of the Belgian reform of mental health care (2010), designed to assess the influence of organisational mechanisms on the social and care trajectories of service users. The findings highlight the ongoing challenge for mental health systems to support the inclusion of service users within the community, and the increasingly difficult access to mental health care for people with complex and chronic mental health problems. Drawing from Systems Theory (Luhmann, 2013) and the analysis of subjective experiences, this article delves into the complex processes of social inclusion using the empirically-grounded concepts of the patient role and the impatient role. By acknowledging the relational dimensions of social inclusion, this article argues that complementarities between two faces of the mental health system are key to achieving inclusion beyond the walls of institutions and within society at large.

This chapter describes the process by which a cross-border metropolitan region develops, using the example of the Greater Region. Between 2008 and 2010 the idea of a cross-border, polycentric metropolitan region in the Greater Region was investigated and further developed within the ESPON project 'Metroborder'. In recent years, driven by policy declarations, strategic approaches for implementing this metropolitan region have been developed. A Spatial Development Strategy of the Greater Region with a focus on the metropolitan dimensions of the sub-regions provides the foundation for this. The issue of governance in relation to the crossborder interactional area (in the narrower conception of this area) is also discussed.

The perception of people with disability (PwD) is of key importance for the full inclusion of this group in the labour market. The article presents selected results of research on the perception of PwD in the workplace. The analyses are based on the results of semiotics research conducted in Poland and of quantitative study in the form of computer-assisted Internet interviews (CAWI) carried out on representative samples from eight European countries. Opinions of Internet users were collected in Belgium, Bulgaria, Greece, Spain, Germany, Poland, Sweden and Great Britain. The results of semiotic analyses on texts mainly from Polish culture made it possible to identify the prevailing images of disability in Polish popular culture and inspired the authors to seek diversity in perceptions of disability depending on social and cultural patterns in a given country. The results of the international survey were used to compare all eight countries with regard to the relationship between the dimensions of culture according to G. Hofstede, and openness to people with disability in the workplace. The conducted research indicates that the perception of the issue of disability is significantly related to the selected dimensions of culture according to G. Hofstede.

This article explores how the Gender Pension Gap (GPG)—the relative difference in average pension received by men and women—might evolve in the future in various European countries, given past, current, and projected future labour market behaviour and earnings of women and men, and current pension regulations. The GPG reflects career inequalities between women and men, though these are partly mitigated by the redistributive impact of the public retirement pensions. They are further mitigated by survivor benefits. This study aims to document both mechanisms in the projections of the GPG. As the GPG varies widely across European countries, we analyse countries with a high (Luxembourg), high and low middle (Belgium and Switzerland Portugal), and low (Slovenia) GPG. We find that the GPG will fall significantly in all five countries over the coming decades. The fundamental drivers behind this development are discussed. In addition to the base scenario, we simulate two variants to show the impact of the Gender Pension Coverage Gap and of survivor pensions. Additionally, we project the GPG if current labour market gender gaps were to remain at their present level, and, conversely, if these were to disappear overnight. These alternative scenarios, one of which also serves as a robustness test, suggest that the future decline of the GPG is largely the result of labour market developments that have already happened during the past decades.

In the context of demographic change and the associated shrinking and aging of the population, the safeguarding of public services in rural areas faces great challenges. Rural border areas find themselves in a unique situation due to their location, and must overcome additional challenges if they want to cooperate with their neighbours in the provision of public services. This paper examines cross-border cooperation in public service provision in rural areas of the Greater Region. The area examined here comprises the German territorial authorities on the German-French border within the Greater Region. An analysis of the responsibilities for and understanding of public services in Germany and France, a concise inventory of education and healthcare services, a written survey of German territorial authorities in the German-French border area, and case studies of projects (e.g. INTERREG A projects) are used to demonstrate the successes, problems and opportunities of cross-border approaches.

The recent history of the Greater Region has been strongly characterised by fossil fuels. The area thus faces significant challenges as a model region in terms of the cross-border activities necessary to meet the requirements of climate protection and the energy transition. Based on the targets defined in Europe, this paper presents examples of approaches to action and projects undertaken in the field of energy in the Greater Region. Experiences gathered in the area - including those of the authors - reveal the need for action, firstly in relation to the implementation of structures and networks, and secondly to the potential development of research excellence in the field of energy/climate protection. As relevant actors in the energy transition, the municipalities have a particular role to play here.

Following the work of Barbara Adam (1998) and Ulrike Felt (2016), we draw particular attention to 'timeprints' in the assessment and selection of radioactive waste management (RWM) options. Using the example of Belgium, we identify four different timeprints mobilized (un)consciously by stakeholders when assessing RWM options, namely trajectorism, promise economy, radioactive waste identity, and multi-situated timeprints. We show that each of these timeprints has a significant impact on the RWM option to be considered and actively determines future radioactive waste management pathways in the form of 'tacit governance'. In Anlehnung an die Arbeiten von Barbara Adam (1998) und Ulrike Felt (2016) legen wir besonderes Augenmerk auf die zeitlichen Abläufe bei der Bewertung und Auswahl von Optionen für die Entsorgung radioaktiver Abfälle (radioactive waste management - RWM). Anhand des Beispiels Belgien identifizieren wir vier verschiedene 'timeprints', die von den Interessenvertretern bei der Bewertung von RWM-Optionen (un)bewusst eingesetzt werden, nämlich 'trajectorism', wirtschaftliche Versprechen, Identität radioaktiver Abfälle und 'multi-situated timeprints'. Wir zeigen auf, dass jede dieser 'timeprints' einen wesentlichen Einfluss auf die in Betracht zu ziehenden RWM-Optionen hat und die zukünftigen Entsorgungswege für solche Abfälle in Form einer 'tacit governance' aktiv mitbestimmt.

We quantify and explain the firm responses and worker impacts of foreign demand shocks to domestic production networks. To capture that firms can be indirectly exposed to such shocks by buying from or selling to domestic firms that import or export, we use Belgian data with information on both domestic firm-to-firm sales and foreign trade transactions. Our estimates of firm responses suggest that Belgian firms pass on a large share of a foreign demand shock to their domestic suppliers, face upward-sloping labor supply curves, and have sizable fixed overhead costs in labor. Motivated and guided by these findings, we develop and estimate an equilibrium model that allows us to study how idiosyncratic and aggregate changes in foreign demand propagate through a small open economy and affect firms and workers. Our results suggest that the way the labor market is typically modeled in existing research on foreign demand shocks - with no fixed costs and perfectly elastic labor supply - would grossly understate the decline in real wages due to an increase in foreign tariffs.

This contribution sheds light on the link between affect and protest behaviors. Using data from a voter survey conducted around the 2019 elections in Belgium, we examine two dimensions of affect: a vertical one, i.e., negative and positive emotions towards politics in general, and a horizontal one, i.e., affective polarization towards fellow citizens. Our findings make three important contributions. First, we identify five distinct classes of respondents depending on their emotions towards politics (apathetic, angry, hopeful, highly emotional, and average). Second, we demonstrate that the combination of both anger and hope is more strongly associated with protest action than anger alone. By contrast, apathy, characterized by an absence of emotions towards politics, is negatively related to protest behavior. Third, we show that affective polarization is a key driver of protest behavior per se. We also show that the two dimensions of affect have distinctive effects. Yet they interact: Affective polarization towards political opponents compensates for the absence of emotions towards politics in general.

This paper presents an introduction to forms of cooperation on European, intergovernmental, federal state, regional and municipal levels. The EU Community Initiative INTERREG is described as a significant funding instrument for cross-border cooperation. This excursus thus provides background knowledge for many of the papers in this volume.

We use survey evidence on reported spending in hypothetical energy price shock scenarios to study novel features of the price elasticity of energy demand and the marginal propensity to consume (MPC) after paying the energy bill. We document several nonlinearities depending on the sign and magnitude of the energy price shock that are economically relevant, including at the extensive and intensive margins. There is also considerable heterogeneity across households. For price increases, the elasticity of energy demand appears to be significantly larger for households that will likely undertake major home renovations over the next months, and smaller for families with more appetite to consume. In contrast, MPCs depend on households' income, saving buffer, financial uncertainty, appetite to consume, and gender of household head. Yet household characteristics hardly matter when energy prices decline; we only find smaller MPCs for households with a greater saving buffer and younger families. Finally, we show that targeted price subsidies on energy for Belgian low-income households have been much more effective in supporting non-energy consumption than the general VAT reduction on energy prices.

This chapter presents the foundations of spatial planning in the sub-regions of the Greater Region and the Upper Rhine region. It provides a picture of current developments concerning the guiding principles for spatial development and introduces the existing spatial structures of these border regions. Furthermore, the planning systems in Belgium (Wallonia), Germany, France and Luxembourg are described, and differences are identified that necessitate ongoing discussions between the partners about planning traditions and (new) strategies of spatial development.

In recent years cross-border vocational education and training has become increasingly significant due to the intensification of European integration and increased cross-border relations, as well as demographic and economic disparities between neighbouring border regions. This paper reviews past and present forms of crossborder cooperation in vocational education and training in the Greater Region. The most recent framework agreements on vocational education and training form the focus of discussion. The question of whether the Greater Region can be described as a cross-border vocational education and training area is also addressed.

Cultural tourism is one of the most quickly growing tourism segments. Cultural heritage is an important resource for developing cultural tourism. In rural areas, tourism plays an important role in safeguarding employment, income and supply structures, but in contrast to the situation in urban regions, resources for developing cultural tourism are scarcely used. As the border regions are largely rural in character, the question arises as to the role cultural tourism and cultural heritage currently play there. This paper investigates the use of cultural heritage in the tourism sector in the border areas of the Greater Region and the Trinational Metropolitan Region of the Upper Rhine and uses this as a basis for proposals concerning the further utilisation of cultural heritage as a resource for developing tourism.

The institutionalisation of border regions has a long history. Initial forms of cooperation usually emerged in relation to a specific event. The 1970s were decisive for the emergence of cross-border organisations in both the Greater Region and the Upper Rhine region. Over the decades the structures were consolidated, although regionally specific adaptations and developments continue both on a conceptual and practical level. The European INTERREG A programme has played a significant role in improving cross-border cooperation, and INTERREG continues to be an important factor in the implementation of cross-border projects. Efforts to further develop the institutional framework and cooperation structures in recent years demonstrate that there are still many challenges but also unexploited potential in the Greater Region and the Upper Rhine region.

Active labour market policies, like training, aim to increase the employability of unemployed population subgroups. Research indicates that the most vulnerable groups—such as women of migrant origin—are less likely to participate in the most effective programmes. Prior studies have established that household composition affects the labour market outcomes of women without and with a migration background. In contrast, research has not addressed the potential relevance of household composition in relation to women’s training uptake. Using hazard models and longitudinal microdata from the employment office and social security registers, we analyse the extent to which women’s household composition such as the presence and the origin of their partner or the presence of children is associated with the uptake of occupation‐specific training in Flanders (Belgium). Our results suggest that, even when we control for previously identified determinants of training uptake such as the human capital of unemployed women, training uptake in most groups varies by household composition. More specifically, the results suggest that women with a partner of non‐migrant origin show higher cumulative uptake than women with a migrant origin partner or single women, and that the presence of children in the household reduces women’s training participation. Furthermore, household composition is found to be a stronger differentiating factor in uptake for migrant origin women than for non‐migrant origin women.

L’article aborde l’évolution des moyens financiers consacrés à l’exercice d’une des fonctions régaliennes par excellence, la sécurité publique. À partir des budgets débattus et votés par le Parlement belge au profit de la gendarmerie entre 1919 et 1957, nous proposons une relecture de l’histoire et des évolutions de ce corps et des attentes placées en lui par les autorités politiques en matière d’exercice de la sécurité. L’article revient également sur les enjeux méthodologiques de l’usage de données budgétaires pour une histoire des polices et de leurs missions à l’époque contemporaine. This article discusses the evolution of the budgets allowed to the exercise of one of the most important State functions: public order, security and safety. By working on the Gendarmerie budgets debated and voted by the Belgian Parliament between 1919 and 1957, we propose a new reading of the history and evolution of this police force. We highlight the expectations placed on it by the political authorities with regard to the exercise of public safety. The article also discusses methodological stakes about using budgetary data to write a modern history of the police and their missions. El artículo trata de la evolución de los medios financieros dedicados al ejercicio de una de las funciones regias por excelencia, la seguridad pública. A partir de los presupuestos debatidos y votados por el Parlamento belga para la gendarmería entre 1919 y 1957, proponemos una relectura de la historia y la evolución de este cuerpo y de las expectativas depositadas en él por las autoridades políticas en materia de seguridad. El artículo también aborda los retos metodológicos de la utilización de datos presupuestarios para una historia de la policía y sus misiones en la época contemporánea. Der Artikel befasst sich mit der Entwicklung der finanziellen Mittel, die für die Ausübung einer der hoheitlichen Funktionen par excellence, der öffentlichen Sicherheit, aufgewendet werden. Ausgehend von den Budgets, die das belgische Parlament zwischen 1919 und 1957 für die Gendarmerie diskutiert und verabschiedet hat, werden die Geschichte und die Entwicklung der Gendarmerie und die Erwartungen der politischen Behörden an die Gendarmerie im Hinblick auf die Ausübung der Sicherheit neu bewertet. Der Artikel geht auch auf die methodologischen Herausforderungen ein, die sich aus der Verwendung von Haushaltsdaten für eine Geschichte der Polizei und ihrer Aufgaben in der heutigen Zeit ergeben.

International audience; This article provides the first comprehensive overview of the severity and impact of the Spanish flu in Belgium (1918–1919) and thereby makes a long overdue connection with the extensive international literature on pandemics in general and Spanish flu in particular. Leveraging ego documents (diaries), municipal-level excess mortality, and individual-level cause-of-death registers, we present new evidence on the chronology and spatial distribution of Spanish flu mortality in Belgium in 1918 and 1919 as well as social and demographic characteristics of the Spanish flu deaths in the city of Antwerp and discuss the government measures taken in the difficult context of the German occupation. In Belgium, our analysis shows that the chronology and geography of the Spanish flu cannot be seen in isolation from the vagaries of the First World War, in terms of soldiers and evacuees both acting as likely vectors of influenza transmission as well as inflating crude death rates at the municipal level.; Cet article fournit la première vue d'ensemble de la gravité et de l'impact de la grippe espagnole en Belgique (1918-1919) et établit ainsi un lien longtemps attendu avec la vaste littérature internationale sur les pandémies en général et la grippe espagnole en particulier. En nous appuyant sur des documents personnels (journaux intimes), des registres de surmortalité au niveau communal et des registres de causes de décès au niveau individuel, nous présentons de nouvelles preuves de la chronologie et de la distribution spatiale de la mortalité due à la grippe espagnole en Belgique en 1918 et 1919, ainsi que des caractéristiques sociales et démographiques des décès dus à la grippe espagnole dans la ville d'Anvers, et nous discutons des mesures gouvernementales prises dans le contexte difficile de l'occupation allemande. En Belgique, notre analyse montre que la chronologie et la géographie de la grippe espagnole ne peuvent être considérées indépendamment des aléas de la Première Guerre mondiale, en ce sens que les soldats et les évacués ont été des vecteurs probables de transmission de la grippe et ont augmenté les taux bruts de mortalité au niveau communal.

Purpose: To determine the influence of COVID-19 and the first 2020 lockdown on Flemish people’s initial travel behaviour perceptions, a hypothetical scenario was posed to respondents where they were asked to keep in mind a situation where they might be able to travel again during the summer of 2020 (July/August). This research had two main aims: i) the pre-lockdown travel plans for summer 2020 were determined; ii) the extent to which respondents would adapt their travel behaviour if they were hypothetically allowed to travel again by summer 2020. Methods: This exploratory research was done by means of an online quantitative questionnaire of which 1803(n) complete responses were obtained through convenience and snowball sampling. Results: The results revealed that respondents did have initial travel plans for the 2020 summer (July/August) period, but that they adjusted their planning to mostly travelling nationally/locally, potentially benefitting the local tourism industry. These findings (i) indicate the importance of directing marketing efforts towards the local travel market and (ii) contribute to literature regarding the resilience of the (local) tourism industry. Additionally, the research unveils how the industry should do long-term planning by taking the immediate travel behaviour changes of the Flemish travel consumers into account through regular intervals of consumer research so that it can pick up on possible behavioural trends and ready itself. Implications: Government, together with the industry, can work towards policies that act as a safety net during possible future industry disasters to minimize the negative impacts and foster a swift recovery.

How and why did the Congolese elite turn from loyal intermediaries into opponents of the colonial state? This book seeks to enrich our understanding of the political and cultural processes culminating in the tumultuous decolonization of the Belgian Congo. Focusing on the making of an African bourgeoisie, the book illuminates the so-called évolués’ social worlds, cultural self-representations, daily life and political struggles.

The basic cognitive skill of numeracy is a recognized form of human capital, associated with economic and social well being for individuals and for nations. In this study, we explore how occupational complexity relates to proficiency in numeracy, among adults in full-time employment. We operationalize occupational complexity by constructing three measures of task complexity: complexity with data, complexity with people and complexity with things. Data from the international OECD survey of adult skills, 2012, is employed to investigate both the distribution of these three dimensions of occupational task complexity and how these relate to numeracy in 13 countries. The analysis indicates that data occupational complexity predicts numeracy scores, when controlling for age, gender and educational level. The findings open for a hypothesis that occupational activities may enhance basic skills in adult populations. If elaborated and supported through further studies this finding has practical implications for workplace organization and contributes to theoretical understandings of the development of basic skills in adults.

The author proposes to explore the interest shown by Italian legislators towards a lesser-known cultural model: the Belgian school system. After tracing the origins of the curiosity of European and Italian legislators for foreign models, she will study in depth the interest shown by the Italian political class towards some aspects of the Belgian scholastic model. The author will then show the methods they used to study this model and the limitations they faced in transferring some of its characteristics. As the contribution tries to demonstrate, even if a series of features of the Belgian model could not be transposed into the Italian national system for ideological, economic or cultural reasons, the study of the Belgian school system, and more generally of foreign cultural models, undoubtedly played a role in the development of the Italian national school system in the post-unification years. It is therefore legitimate to state that the comparison with foreign school models contributed to the building of the modern Italian school. (DIPF/Orig.), Frankreich und Deutschland blieben lange die zentralen Bezugspunkte in Italien für den sekundären schulischen und den universitären Bereich. In bestimmten Fällen richtet sich der Blick von Italien im schulischen Bereich auf andere nationale Kontexte, wie z.B. den belgischen, der hier untersucht wird und der einen dritten Weg zwischen dem universitären deutschen Seminarmodell und dem französischen Modell mit seinen spezifischen und diversifizierten Instituten darstellt. (DIPF/Orig.)

Because people do not join political parties in a social vacuum but rather in close relation with their peers, this paper explores how the structure and composition of interpersonal, social networks affect youth party membership, and questions the answer’s implications for recruitment. The structure does not affect statistically the young citizens’ probability of becoming party members, as the process depends to a high degree on their proximate network core, e.g. their relatives, pointing towards a certain exclusivity in recruitment patterns and giving insight also on why they might stay away from conventional politics. A homogeneous composition matching with a high social and political profile is a pattern that has a considerable impact on their odds of joining a party, stressing that social networks can work in reproducing social and political inequalities, confining recruitment targets to the national population’s most “usual suspects”, and thereby explaining some difficulties faced by party organisations. Drawing on these findings, the conclusion discusses strategic considerations for Belgian parties., Intergenerational Justice Review, Vol 5, No 1 (2019): How attractive are political parties and trade unions to young people? (II)

This study examines and evaluates the representation of ethnocultural diversity in non-fiction TV programmes broadcasted by the Flemish (Belgian Dutch-speaking) public service broadcaster VRT in the 2016–2017 TV season. A qualitative content analysis of a sample comprising 36 clips and episodes of 14 non-fiction programmes was supplemented by four focus group interviews with a total of 12 participants belonging to different ethnocultural minorities. The findings suggest that despite several measures undertaken by the VRT, the representation of ethnocultural minorities is still unbalanced and biased in at least three ways: first, in presenting minorities as homogeneous groups rather than highlighting intragroup differences; second, in ‘typecasting’ people with a migration background thematically, i.e., for items on topics and issues related to their ethnocultural identity; and, third, in portraying and approaching minorities from a dominant group perspective. The article ends with the recommendation for public service media to further improve ethnocultural diversity in the workforce and to encourage their journalists and TV producers to reconsider their ‘professional pragmatics’ in order to increase their ethnocultural sensitivity and better manage the representation of super-diversity in their programmes.

Belgium has implemented, following the example of other countries, in-work benefit policies since the early 2000’s, with the objective of increasing employment rates and fighting poverty. Belgian in-work benefits differ from most other in-work benefits as eligibility requires low hourly earnings. We study the effects extensions of those benefits would have both on labour supply and welfare, using a random-utility - random-opportunity model estimated on cross-sectional SILC datasets. Results show that further increasing the benefits would slightly increase labour supply and welfare of low-to-middle income deciles, but at very high net cost per job created. We compare our results with existing research and explain some mechanisms that possibly led to an underestimation of negative intensive margin labour supply responses in previous simulations.

Objective: we explore migrant-native differentials in the uptake of formal and informal childcare and whether this is induced by lower demand for childcare versus differential access to (in)formal childcare compared to natives. Background: The rise in female labour market participation in recent decades has challenged parents to negotiate work and family responsibilities and organise childcare. Belgium is among the European countries with the highest availability of formal childcare, but maternal employment and uptake of childcare are substantially lower in migrant populations. Methods: Combining linked microdata from the 1991 and 2001 censuses with contextual data on childcare availability at the municipality level, we use multinomial logit models to study childcare use and type of childcare arrangement among parents having a young child in 2001. As access to childcare and maternal employment are mutually endogenous, we use estimated employment opportunities. Results: We find considerable migrant-native differentials in childcare use, as well as substantial differences between first and second generation migrants. Second generation mothers of Turkish, Moroccan and Eastern-European background are less likely than natives to use childcare, and more likely to rely on informal arrangements if childcare is used. Controlling for socio-demographic characteristics and differential availability of (in)formal childcare largely accounts for differences in childcare use, but Turkish and Moroccan women remain less likely to use care and first generation Turkish mothers remain more likely to use informal care as opposed to formal childcare. Conclusions: While differences in socio-demographic characteristics, labour market opportunities and availability of (in)formal care provide a partial explanation, partial migrant-native differentials in childcare use persist for specific groups, suggesting that other factors inhibit the uptake of formal childcare. Fragestellung: Wir untersuchen in diesem Beitrag die Unterschiede in der Inanspruchnahme von Kinderbetreuung nach Migrationshintergrund. Dabei unterscheide wir zwischen formeller Kinderbetreuung ("crèche" und Tagespflege), informeller Betreuung (Familienangehörige und Freunde) und "kombinierte" Arrangements informeller und formeller Betreuung. Wir kontrollieren für sozio-demographische Merkmale des Haushalts, mütterliches Erwerbsverhalten, regionale Kinderbetreuungsquoten und Verfügbarkeit von nahen Familienangehörigen als Proxy für informelle Betreuung. Hintergrund: Belgien ist eines der europäischen Länder, das sich durch eine hohe Verfügbarkeit institutioneller Kinderbetreuung auszeichnet, wobei allerdings die Müttererwerbstätigkeit wie auch die Inanspruchnahme institutioneller Kinderbetreuung unter der Migrantenpopulation relativ niedrig ausfällt. Methode: Als Datenbasis dienen Mikrodaten, die mit dem Zensus aus den Jahren 1991 und 2001 verbundenen wurden, die Informationen zu lokalen Kinderbetreuungsquoten enthalten. Als Methode wurden multinomiale Logit-Modelle geschätzt, wobei die abhängige Variable die Art des Betreuungsarrangements von Eltern abbildet, dessen jüngstes Kind im Jahr 2001 geboren wurde. Da Kinderbetreuung und Müttererwerbsverhalten endogene Prozesse sind, haben wir in den Modellen für das geschätzte Erwerbsverhalten nach Migrationshintergrund kontrolliert. Ergebnisse: Die Analysen zeigen, dass vor allem nicht-europäische Migranten seltener Kinderbetreuungsarrangement nutzen als Einheimische, wobei sich diese Unterschiede auch in die zweite Generation forttragen. Wenn Kindebetreuung in Anspruch genommen wird, wählen europäische Migranten eher formelle, hingegen nicht-europäische Migranten eher informelle Arrangements. Die Unterschiede im Erwerbsverhalten erklären zu einem großen Teil die Unterschiede zwischen Migranten und Einheimischen in der Nutzung institutioneller Betreuung. Schlussfolgerung: Während sich die Unterschiede in der Kinderbetreuungsnutzung zwischen Migranten und Einheimischen zum Teil durch sozio-demographische Merkmale, das Arbeitsmarktverhalten und die Verfügbarkeit (in)formeller Kinderbetreuung erklären lassen, bleiben große Unterschiede, vor allem für türkischstämmige Migranten, bestehen.

Supplemental Instruction is a program designed to support students in their learning process. The program consists of advanced students supervising new students, where the purpose is to improve students’ performance and reduce the risk of interruption of studies. Supplemental Instruction was established almost 50 years ago and is used today in universities around the world. This book is about student learning processes and Supplemental Instruction, which includes everything from learning activities in SI to developing guidance skills of leaders and more. The book also deals with a comparison of Supplemental Instruction with other group-oriented learning activities, and practical aspects of the programme. The book is aimed at anyone who is concerned about study quality in higher education. The contributors are researchers and lecturers at various universities from several countries. The book is part of a trilogy on Supplemental Instruction, where the themes for the other books are “Digital Technologies” and “Organisation and Leadership”. (DIPF/Orig.)

Dieser Beitrag gibt einen Überblick über international bestehende Leistungsstudien, die die Frage nach Lerneinbußen und neuer Bildungsungleichheit aufgrund der pandemiebedingten Schulschließungen im Frühjahr 2020 beantworten. Auf Basis von drei kürzlich erschienenen Reviews und eigenen Recherchen konnten 32 Leistungsstudien identifiziert werden. Nimmt man die in diesen Studien berichteten Befunde zusammen, so kann festgehalten werden, dass die bestehende Datenlage die vielfach erwarteten Lerneinbußen und die erwartete Bildungsbenachteiligung von Schüler*innen aus sozioökonomisch schlechter gestellten Familien mehrheitlich bestätigt. Demgegenüber steht allerdings eine substanzielle Zahl von Studien, die keine Lerneinbußen und keine zusätzliche Bildungsbenachteiligung durch Schulschließungen im Frühjahr 2020 beobachten können. Diese Studien stammen insbesondere aus dem DACH-Raum. Auch zeigt sich die Tendenz, dass in höheren Schulstufen und in der Domäne Lesen verstärkte sozioökonomische Benachteiligung aufgrund von Schulschließungen weniger wahrscheinlich ist als im Primarstufenbereich und in der Domäne Mathematik. (DIPF/Orig.) This paper provides an overview of international studies on student achievement addressing the question of learning losses and increased educational inequalities due to Covid-19-related school closures in spring 2020. Based on a comprehensive literature search and considering three current reviews, we identified 32 studies on student learning losses during the first period of school closures. The findings reported in these studies indicate that most of the data available so far confirm the frequent assumption that Covid-19-related school closures lead to significant learning losses and to additional educational inequality, i. e. students from socially disadvantaged families suffered from greater learning losses. In contrast, however, there is a significant number of studies that failed to prove any learning losses or any additional educational disadvantage due to Covid-19-related school closures in spring 2020. Interestingly, these studies are predominantly from German-speaking countries. Finally, the studies indicate a tendency for increased socio-economic effects due to school closures being less likely at higher school levels and in the domain of reading than at primary school level and in the domain of mathematics. (DIPF/Orig.)

Das Buch schlie��t an das im Juni 2020 erschienene 16. Beiheft ���Langsam vermisse ich die Schule ������ ��� Schule w��hrend und nach der Corona-Pandemie sowie das im Januar 2021 erschienene 17. Beiheft Schule w��hrend der Corona-Pandemie ��� Neue Ergebnisse und ��berblick ��ber ein dynamisches Forschungsfeld an. Den Schwerpunkt des Beihefts bilden Beitr��ge zu den Auswirkungen des eingeschr��nkten Schulbetriebes im zweiten Schulhalbjahr 2019/20: Auf zwei ��bersichtsbeitr��ge, die nationale und internationale Befunde zu Lernr��ckst��nden von Sch��ler*innen und deren Zusammenhang mit sozio��konomischen Hintergrundmerkmalen zusammentragen, folgen zwei empirische Beitr��ge, in denen Ergebnisse aus L��ngsschnittstudien pr��sentiert werden. Der zweite Teil des Beihefts blickt ��ber den unmittelbaren Horizont der Pandemie hinaus und gibt Anregungen f��r Schulpolitik und Schulforschung: Ein Beitrag diskutiert m��gliche Ma��nahmen zur mittel- und langfristigen Schlie��ung pandemiebedingter Lernl��cken, der andere skizziert Themen, denen sich die Schulforschung in Zukunft verst��rkt widmen sollte. Das Beiheft richtet sich damit insbesondere an diejenigen, die Ma��nahmen zur Bew��ltigung der Folgen der Schulschlie��ungen f��r Kinder und Jugendliche konzipieren und durchf��hren, an diejenigen, die weitergehende Vorhaben im Bereich der (empirischen) Schul- und Bildungsforschung planen oder f��rdern, an thematisch Interessierte aus der Bildungspolitik, der Bildungsadministration und aus den Schulen sowie nat��rlich auch an eine bildungspolitisch interessierte ��ffentlichkeit. (DIPF/Orig.)

This study explores how constructivism's view of we and them have affected Belgium and France in the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, as well as how their actions with a starting point in soldairty affected UN's actions during the genocide in Rwanda. With a qualitative text analysis and a constructivist reading, official documents from the UN are analysed. The analysis shows that Belgium, France and the UN based on a constructivist reading, act because the feeling of we and them, which results in Belgium recalling their troops in Rwanda as well as their cooperation with France in the humanitarian rescue of foreign citizen which were based in Rwanda in the start of the genocide. The humanitarian rescue as well as the recalling of troops, could with a starting point in constructivism, explain that they acted from a we point of view and that they saw the citizens of Rwanda as them, which they did not feel solidarity to. With no solidarity, they did not act as if Rwanda and the UN, France and Belgium represented a we with a similar identity. The study also discusses the complexity in trying to explain different causes and reasons to someone's behaviour and that the research question itself is complex and could be explained in many perspectives. But in the conclusion the study answer the research question, that a perspective with the feeling of we and them could explain why France, Belgium and the UN acted in that way in the geoncide in Rwanda.

Dieser Beitrag gibt einen ��berblick ��ber international bestehende Leistungsstudien, die die Frage nach Lerneinbu��en und neuer Bildungsungleichheit aufgrund der pandemiebedingten Schulschlie��ungen im Fr��hjahr 2020 beantworten. Auf Basis von drei k��rzlich erschienenen Reviews und eigenen Recherchen konnten 32 Leistungsstudien identifiziert werden. Nimmt man die in diesen Studien berichteten Befunde zusammen, so kann festgehalten werden, dass die bestehende Datenlage die vielfach erwarteten Lerneinbu��en und die erwartete Bildungsbenachteiligung von Sch��ler*innen aus sozio��konomisch schlechter gestellten Familien mehrheitlich best��tigt. Demgegen��ber steht allerdings eine substanzielle Zahl von Studien, die keine Lerneinbu��en und keine zus��tzliche Bildungsbenachteiligung durch Schulschlie��ungen im Fr��hjahr 2020 beobachten k��nnen. Diese Studien stammen insbesondere aus dem DACH-Raum. Auch zeigt sich die Tendenz, dass in h��heren Schulstufen und in der Dom��ne Lesen verst��rkte sozio��konomische Benachteiligung aufgrund von Schulschlie��ungen weniger wahrscheinlich ist als im Primarstufenbereich und in der Dom��ne Mathematik. (DIPF/Orig.), This paper provides an overview of international studies on student achievement addressing the question of learning losses and increased educational inequalities due to Covid-19-related school closures in spring 2020. Based on a comprehensive literature search and considering three current reviews, we identified 32 studies on student learning losses during the first period of school closures. The findings reported in these studies indicate that most of the data available so far confirm the frequent assumption that Covid-19-related school closures lead to significant learning losses and to additional educational inequality, i. e. students from socially disadvantaged families suffered from greater learning losses. In contrast, however, there is a significant number of studies that failed to prove any learning losses or any additional educational disadvantage due to Covid-19-related school closures in spring 2020. Interestingly, these studies are predominantly from German-speaking countries. Finally, the studies indicate a tendency for increased socio-economic effects due to school closures being less likely at higher school levels and in the domain of reading than at primary school level and in the domain of mathematics. (DIPF/Orig.)

This handbook reaches out to university teachers irrespective of their discipline and research fields. It shows the diversity of practice of intercultural teaching which is currently applied in different universities. International Mobility is supposed to increase the quality of teaching and research through the exchange of knowledge, international networking and common research projects. Regarding the involved individuals and organisations, mobility is expected to contribute to an attitude of respect towards the respective cultural values and to develop academic solidarity. Not at least the intercultural learning of mobile and home students and teachers shall be activated. The authors of this Handbook hope to give a taste of international exchange and collaboration in university teaching. The handbook consists of two parts. The first part deals with the shaping of teaching and learning situations in an international and diverse environment, and focuses on didactical reflections. It shall be used to enable teachers in their respective fields to design intercultural learning processes, which contribute to the learning of all ��� home as well as international exchange students. The first part also gives an impression of different options how universities can advance the internationalisation of higher education. Readers will find basic information, practical hints and examples from the partner universities. Reflective questions and practical hints take the form of bullet points from chapter 2 onwards. The sub-chapters on ���Stories from the field��� offer concise practical advice on designing internationally oriented teaching to support any such setting. Readers can rummage through stories from the different universities, where practical examples are elaborated. The second part lists information about funding and support programmes by the UNIC partner universities with a focus on teaching staff, with concrete links and contacts at the respective institution. (DIPF/Orig.)

Supplemental Instruction is a program designed to support students in their learning process. The program consists of advanced students supervising new students, where the purpose is to improve students’ performance and reduce the risk of interruption of studies. Supplemental Instruction was established almost 50 years ago and is used today in universities around the world. This book is about student learning processes and Supplemental Instruction, which includes everything from learning activities in SI to developing guidance skills of leaders and more. The book also deals with a comparison of Supplemental Instruction with other group-oriented learning activities, and practical aspects of the programme. The book is aimed at anyone who is concerned about study quality in higher education. The contributors are researchers and lecturers at various universities from several countries. The book is part of a trilogy on Supplemental Instruction, where the themes for the other books are “Digital Technologies” and “Organisation and Leadership”. (DIPF/Orig.)

In democracies, one of Public Service Media’s (PSM) main roles is to inform the public. In a digital news ecosystem, where commercial, citizen, and alternative news sources have multiplied, questions about the ability and need for PSM to fulfil this role are increasingly being raised. While the role of PSM can and should be scrutinized, a too-narrow a focus on an informed citizenry may obfuscate aspects, other than audience reach and objectivity, that are key to this information role, such as trust. Against this background, this article studies whether and to what extent citizens still trust the news and information services of their public broadcaster, asking if that trust is still high, whether there is a difference between groups in the population, and if trust is in line with reach. Based on a representative survey of news users in Flanders, the Dutch-speaking community of Belgium, the article studies the reach and trust scores of the brands of VRT, Flanders’ PSM, and compares them to those of its main competitors, with a specific focus on differences in terms of age, education levels, and political orientation. The results suggest that VRT struggles more than the main commercial players to reach young people and the lower-educated, but still leads when it comes to trust. The data show the continued importance of widening our assessment of PSM beyond market-focused indicators of reach.

Shifts in audio-visual production, distribution and consumption have increased pressure on broadcasters as main financiers of domestic content in Europe. However, within the context of internationalisation and digitalisation, there are also new opportunities for the export of European content. By taking a close look at the evolution and increasing popularity of Flemish TV drama, this article identifies key explanatory factors for the export of content produced in a small media market. The analysis also discusses the extent to which the rise in exports may contribute to the increased sustainability of a small and fragile, yet vibrant audio-visual industry.