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The report provides valuable insights from a cross-disciplinary group of leading researchers and stakeholders within brain-related disorders, with a focus on five main topics: 1) Legal, Ethical, and Societal Compliance, 2) Data Acquisition, 3) FAIR Data, 4) Models Needed for Patient Assessment, and 5) Innovation and Science Needs. The report offers a detailed roadmap to achieve the vision of improving the investigation of brain-related disorders. The results are based on careful deliberation between researchers, experts, and stakeholders following the EBRAINS CoCreate framework. EBRAINS CoCreate builds upon the method of Open Research Agenda Setting (ORAS), which recognises the benefits of engaging multiple actors in defining future research. The resulting research agendas include visions and actions that a variety of actors find important, thereby strengthening and legitimising the selection of research priorities. The EBRAINS CoCreate Improved Investigation of Brain-Related Disorders process comprised five workshop sessions arranged from February 2023 to March 2023, with the first and last workshops conducted online and the three-day workshop held in Copenhagen, Denmark. The report first takes the reader through a narrative to set the scene for the envisioned future. Thereafter, the roadmap with actions required to achieve the vision for improving the investigation of brain-related disorders is visualised and then elaborated upon with detailed descriptions of the actions. Finally, the report also highlights recommendations from the participants to demonstrate how EBRAINS can be a vital player in realising the roadmap and how the vision can be realised today., The report is co-written by each participant who attended the workshop series. Their names are listed in the report.

Introduction: Stakeholder engagement remains scarce in basic brain research. However, it can greatly improve the relevance of investigations and accelerate the translation of study findings to policy. The Lifebrain consortium investigated risk and protective factors influencing brain health using cognition, lifestyle and imaging data from European cohorts. Stakeholder activities of Lifebrain—organized in a separate work package—included organizing stakeholder events, investigating public perceptions of brain health and dissemination. Here, we describe the experiences of researchers and stakeholders regarding stakeholder engagement in the Lifebrain project. Methods: Stakeholder engagement in Lifebrain was evaluated through surveys among researchers and stakeholders and stakeholders' feedback at stakeholder events through evaluation forms. Survey data were analysed using a simple content analysis approach, and results from evaluation forms were summarized after reviewing the frequency of responses. Results: Consortium researchers and stakeholders experienced the engagement activities as meaningful and relevant. Researchers highlighted that it made the research and research processes more visible and contributed to new networks, optimized data collection on brain health perceptions and the production of papers and provided insights into stakeholder views. Stakeholders found research activities conducted in the stakeholder engagement work package to be within their field of interest and research results relevant to their work. Researchers identified barriers to stakeholder engagement, including lack of time, difficulties in identifying relevant stakeholders, and challenges in communicating complex scientific issues in lay language and maintaining relationships with stakeholders over time. Stakeholders identified barriers such as lack of budget, limited resources in their organization, time constraints and insufficient communication between researchers and stakeholders. Conclusion: Stakeholder engagement in basic brain research can greatly benefit researchers and stakeholders alike. Its success is conditional on dedicated human and financial resources, clear communication, transparent mutual expectations and clear roles and responsibilities. Public Contribution: Patient organizations, research networks, policymakers and members of the general public were involved in engagement and research activities throughout the project duration.

Brain research has in recent years indisputably entered a new epoch, driven bysubstantialmethodologicaladvances and digitallyenabled data integration and modeling at multiple scales –from molecules to the whole system. Major advances are emerging at theintersection of neurosciencewith technology and computing. This new science of the brain integrates high-quality basic research,systematic data integration across multiple scales, a new culture of large-scale collaboration andtranslation into applications. A systematic approach, as pioneered in Europe’s Human Brain Project(HBP), will be essential in meeting the pressing medical andtechnological challenges of the comingdecade. The aims of this paper are To develop a concept for the coming decade of digital brain research To discuss it with the research community at large, with the aim of identifying points of convergence and common goals To provide a scientific framework for current and future development of EBRAINS To inform and engage stakeholders, funding organizations and research institutions regarding future digital brain research To identify and address key ethical and societal issues While we do not claim that there is a ‘one size fits all’ approach to addressing these aspects, we areconvinced that discussions around the theme of digital brain research will help drive progress in thebroader field of neuroscience. You can submit your comments here and be considered for co-authorship Or become a supporter by clicking here More information below Comments on this manuscript are welcome This manuscriptis a living document that is being further developed in a participatory process. The work has been initiated by the Science and Infrastructure Board of the Human Brain Project (HBP). Now, the entire research community is invited to contribute to shaping the vision by submitting comments.Comments can be submitted via an online commentary form here. All submitted comments will be considered and discussed. The final decision on whether edits or additions will be made to the next version of the manuscript based on an individual comment will be made by the Science and Infrastructure Board (SIB) of the Human Brain Project (HBP) at regular intervals. The final version of the manuscript will be prepared and published in the next months. Comments may be submitted until the end of May, 2023. Every researcher is welcome to provide comment or indicate support for the contents of this paper and jointly shape the future of brain research. Supporters of the paper: Pietro Avanzini, Marc Beyer, Maria Del Vecchio, Jitka Annen, Maurizio Mattia, Steven Laureys, Rosanne Edelenbosch, Rafael Yuste, Jean-Pierre Changeux, Linda Richards, Hye Weon Jessica Kim, Chrysoula Samara, Luis Miguel González de la Garza, Nikoleta Petalidou, Vasudha Kulkarni, Cesar David Rincon, Isabella O'Shea, Munira Tamim Electricwala, Nicola Palomero-Gallagher, Bernd Carsten Stahl, Bahar Hazal Yalcinkaya, Meysam Hashemi, Carola Sales Carbonell, Marcel Carrère, Anthony Randal McIntosh, Hiba Sheheitli, Abolfazl Ziaeemehr, Martin Breyton, Giovanna Ramos Queda, Anirudh NIhalani Vattikonda, Gyorgy Buzsaki George Ogoh, William Knight Torbjørn V Ness, MIchiel van der Vlag, Mu-ming Poo.

Human brain atlases are tools to gather, present, use, and discover knowledge about the human brain. The developments in brain atlases parallel the advances in neuroanatomy. The brain atlas evolution has been from hand-drawn cortical maps to print atlases to digital platforms which, thanks to tremendous advancements in acquisition techniques and computing, has enabled progress in neuroanatomy from gross (macro) to meso-, micro-, and nano-neuroanatomy. Advances in neuroanatomy have been feasible because of introducing new modalities, from the initial cadaveric dissections, morphology, light microscopy imaging and neuroelectrophysiology to non-invasive in vivo imaging, connectivity, electron microscopy imaging, genomics, proteomics, transcriptomics, and epigenomics. Presently, large and long-term brain projects along with big data drive the development in micro- and nano-neuroanatomy. The goal of this work is to address the relationship between neuroanatomy and human brain atlases and, particularly, the impact of these atlases on the understanding, presentation, and advancement of neuroanatomy. To better illustrate this relationship, a brief outline on the evolution of the human brain atlas concept, creation of brain atlases, atlas-based applications, and future brain-related developments is also presented. In conclusion, human brain atlases are excellent means to represent, present, disseminate, and support neuroanatomy.

Dr. Bert Sakmann (b. 1942) studied at the Universities of Tuebingen, Freiburg, Berlin, Paris, and Munich, graduating in 1967. Much of his professional life has been spent in various institutes of the Max Planck Society. In 1971, a British Council Fellowship took him to the Department of Biophysics of University College London to work with Bernard Katz (1911-2003). In 1974, he obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Goettingen and, with Erwin Neher (b. 1944) at the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, began work that would transform cellular biology and neuroscience, resulting in the 1991 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. In 2008, Dr. Sakmann returned to Munich, where he headed the research group "Cortical Columns in Silico" at the Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology in Martinsried. Here, their group discovered the cell-type specific sensory activation patterns in different layers of a column in the vibrissal area of rodents' somatosensory cortices.

The report offers insights from a cross-disciplinary group of leading researchers and stakeholders within Digital Brain Health focusing on four main topics: Longitudinal Data Studies; Healthy Ageing; Behavioural Data and Lifestyle Data; and Data Sharing and the EBRAINS Knowledge Graph. The report focuses on the possible futures within Digital Brain Health. The results are based on careful deliberation between researchers, experts and stakeholders following the EBRAINS CoCreate framework. EBRAINS CoCreate builds on the method of Open Research Agenda Setting (ORAS) which recognises the benefits of engaging multi-actors in defining future research. The resulting research agendas include visions and missions that a variety of actors find important, which strengthens and legitimises the selection of research priorities. The EBRAINS CoCreate Digital Brain Health process was made up of five workshops arranged from early September 2022 to mid-October 2022, the first and the last workshop being physical workshops held in Marseille, and the three workshops in between set up online. The report offers detailed roadmaps with descriptions of specific actions needed to fulfil the roadmap’s overall vision within the four main topics of Digital Brain Health: Longitudinal Data Studies elucidating multidimensional indicators of individual trajectories in brain health and disease, risk, and resilience, across the lifespan and Europe, to prevent, predict and treat disease, and to promote potential, productivity, well-being, and resilience. Healthy Ageing with a mission to provide individual citizens with evidence-based information to help them make the right decisions maintaining brain health. Behavioral Data and Lifestyle Data focusing on personalized medicine and how both behavior and lifestyle in combination with neuroimaging can lead to a better understanding of disorders, stratification of patients, and development of precise and holistic treatment approaches. Data Sharing and the Knowledge Graph focusing on a TRUSTable EBRAINS Community-driven platform with citizens and multi-actor engagement providing for user-friendliness, trust, FAIR and lawful data sharing, and sustainable and ecologically friendly computing, supported by common ontology and data structures within Global Health Data Space. The report also highlights recommendations from researchers and experts to demonstrate how EBRAINS can be a vital player in realizing these roadmaps, and how some of these visions can be realized today., This report contains contributions from each participant who attended the workshop series. Their names are listed in the report.

Although 75 years have passed since the end of World War II, the Max Planck Society (Max-Planck Gesellschaft, MPG), successor to the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft, KWG), still must grapple with how two of its foremost institutes-the KWI of Psychiatry in Munich and the KWI for Brain Research in Berlin-Buch-amassed collections of brains from victims of Nazi crimes, and how these human remains were retained for postwar research. Initial efforts to deal with victim specimens during the 1980s met with denial and, subsequently, rapid disposal in 1989/1990. Despite the decision of the MPG's president to retain documentation for historical purposes, there are gaps in the available sources. This article provides preliminary results of a research program initiated in 2017 (to be completed by October 2023) to provide victim identifications and the circumstances of deaths.

Microglia are the immune guardians of the central nervous system (CNS), with critical functions in development, maintenance of homeostatic tissue balance, injury and repair. For a long time considered a forgotten ‘third element’ with basic phagocytic functions, a recent surge in interest, accompanied by technological progress, has demonstrated that these distinct myeloid cells have a wide-ranging importance for brain function. This review reports microglial origins, development, and function in the healthy brain. Moreover, it also targets microglia dysfunction and how it contributes to the progression of several neurological disorders, focusing on particular molecular mechanisms and whether these may present themselves as opportunities for novel, microglia-targeted therapeutic approaches, an ever-enticing prospect. Finally, as it has been recently celebrated 100 years of microglia research, the review highlights key landmarks from the past century and looked into the future. Many challenging problems have arisen, thus it points out some of the most pressing questions and experimental challenges for the ensuing century.

Brain research has in recent years indisputably entered a new epoch, driven bysubstantialmethodologicaladvances and digitallyenabled data integration and modeling at multiple scales –from molecules to the whole system. Major advances are emerging at theintersection of neurosciencewith technology and computing. This new science of the brain integrates high-quality basic research,systematic data integration across multiple scales, a new culture of large-scale collaboration andtranslation into applications. A systematic approach, as pioneered in Europe’s Human Brain Project(HBP), will be essential in meeting the pressing medical andtechnological challenges of the comingdecade. The aims of this paper are To develop a concept for the coming decade of digital brain research To discuss it with the research community at large, with the aim of identifying points of convergence and common goals To provide a scientific framework for current and future development of EBRAINS To inform and engage stakeholders, funding organizations and research institutions regarding future digital brain research To identify and address key ethical and societal issues While we do not claim that there is a ‘one size fits all’ approach to addressing these aspects, we areconvinced that discussions around the theme of digital brain research will help drive progress in thebroader field of neuroscience. You can submit your comments here and be considered for co-authorship Or become a supporter by clicking here More information below Comments on this manuscript are welcome This manuscriptis a living document that is being further developed in a participatory process. The work has been initiated by the Science and Infrastructure Board of the Human Brain Project (HBP). Now, the entire research community is invited to contribute to shaping the vision by submitting comments.Comments can be submitted via an online commentary form here. All submitted comments will be considered and discussed. The final decision on whether edits or additions will be made to the next version of the manuscript based on an individual comment will be made by the Science and Infrastructure Board (SIB) of the Human Brain Project (HBP) at regular intervals. New versions of the manuscript will be published every few months on Zenodo. Comments may be submitted until the beginning of 2023. During the Human Brain Project Summit 2023, the manuscript will be adopted by HBP and non-HBP participants, and a final version will be published shortly after. Supporters of the paper: Pietro Avanzini, Marc Beyer, Maria Del Vecchio, Jitka Annen, Maurizio Mattia, Steven Laureys, Rosanne Edelenbosch, Rafael Yuste, Jean-Pierre Changeux, Linda Richards.

Seit Jahrhunderten gibt es den Wunsch, das komplexe Gefüge des Gehirns und der Denkprozesse zu formalisieren. Hannah Fitsch geht der Geschichte dieses Wunsches nach, indem sie mit Hilfe des Begriffs der Mathematisierung der Wahrnehmung die Geschichte der mathematischen Logik und der Übersetzungsprozesse in binäre/informatische Technologien nachzeichnet. Sie stellt dar, wie Methoden und Modelle aus der Mathematik und der Informatik Eingang in die Hirnforschung, in die Ideen des Denkens und in das Konzept des freien Willens gefunden haben. Aus einer feministisch informierten Science-and-Technology-Studies-Perspektive nähert sie sich der Mathematisierung des Blicks und der Wahrnehmung und stellt Fragen nach der Betrachtungsweise der Mensch/Maschine-Parallelen.

Background: In vivo neuroimaging modalities such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional MRI (fMRI), magnetoencephalography (MEG), magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), and quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) are useful techniques to understand brain anatomical structure, functional activity, source localization, neurochemical profiles, and tissue susceptibility respectively. Integrating unique and distinct information from these neuroimaging modalities will further help to enhance the understanding of complex neurological diseases. Objective: To develop a processing scheme for multimodal data integration in a seamless manner on healthy young population, thus establishing a generalized framework for various clinical conditions (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease). Methods: A multimodal data integration scheme has been developed to integrate the outcomes from multiple neuroimaging data (fMRI, MEG, MRS, and QSM) spatially. Furthermore, the entire scheme has been incorporated into a user-friendly toolbox- “PRATEEK”. Results: The proposed methodology and toolbox has been tested for viability among fourteen healthy young participants. The data-integration scheme was tested for bilateral occipital cortices as the regions of interest and can also be extended to other anatomical regions. Overlap percentage from each combination of two modalities (fMRI-MRS, MEG-MRS, fMRI-QSM, and fMRI-MEG) has been computed and also been qualitatively assessed for combinations of the three (MEG-MRS-QSM) and four (fMRI-MEG-MRS-QSM) modalities. Conclusion: This user-friendly toolbox minimizes the need of an expertise in handling different neuroimaging tools for processing and analyzing multimodal data. The proposed scheme will be beneficial for clinical studies where geometric information plays a crucial role for advance brain research.

Carrying out research on brains is important for medical advances in various diseases. However, such research ought not be carried out on human brains because the benefits do not outweigh the potential risks. A possible alternative is the use of brain surrogates. Nevertheless, some scholars who uphold a threshold account of moral status suggest the possibility that, with technological advances in the near future, more advanced brain surrogates will have very similar features to humans. This may suffice for these having the same moral status as humans, and as a result, the situation may have implications for brain research, indeed, leading to the implication that this ought also not to be carried out upon brain surrogates. In this article, we present a relational approach to moral status which upholds that brain surrogates do not have the same moral status as human beings. Hence, brain research ought not be rejected on the grounds of equality of moral status between humans and brain surrogates.

Policymakers aim to move toward animal-free alternatives for scientific research and have introduced very strict regulations for animal research. We argue that, for neuroscience research, until viable and translational alternatives become available and the value of these alternatives has been proven, the use of animals should not be compromised., We would like to thank Loren Frank, UCSF, USA; Sheena Josselyn, Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Canada; Shantanu Jadhav, Brandeis University, USA; the European Animal Research Association (EARA); the Federation of European Neuroscience Societies Committee on Animals in Research (CARE); the Swiss Society for Neuroscience; the Society for Neuroscience Committee on Animals in Research (CAR); and Stichting Informatie Dierproeven (the Dutch foundation for public information on animal testing: SID) for input on and support for this article.

Research in neuroscience and neuroengineering has attracted tremendous interest in the past decades. However, the complexity of the brain tissue, in terms of its structural, chemical, mechanical, and optical properties, makes the interrogation of biophysical and biochemical signals within the brain of living animals extremely challenging. As a viable and versatile tool for brain studies, optical fiber based technologies have provided exceptional opportunities to unravel the mysteries of the brain and open the door for clinical applications in the treatment, diagnosis, and prevention of neurological diseases. Typically, optical fibers with diameters from 10 to 1000 μm are capable of guiding and delivering light to deep levels of the living tissue. Moreover, small dimensions of such devices along with their flexibility and light weight paved the way for understanding the complex behaviours of living and freely moving mammals. This article provides a review of the emerging applications of optical fibers in neuroscience, specifically in the mammalian brain. Representative utilities, including optogenetics, fluorescence sensing, drug administration and phototherapy, are highlighted. We also discuss other biological applications of such implantable fibers, which may provide insights into the future study of brain. It is envisioned that these and other optical fiber based techniques offer a powerful platform for multi-functional neural activity sensing and modulation.

Godfrey Pearlson, Professor of Psychiatry and Neuroscience at Yale University directs the Brain Research Center at the Institute for living in Connecticut. Previously, he was a Professor of Psychia...

Dr. Wolf Singer (b. 1943) is one of Germany's most renowned brain researchers and neurophysiologists. His accomplishments in the creation of new research centers for neuroscience as well as his commitment to European scientific organizations for integrative brain research are highly valued as significant moments of advancement in the neurosciences. Before his appointment as a scientific member of the Max Planck Society and director at the Frankfurt Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, he gained deep insight into the chances and pitfalls of translational initiatives at the Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry in Munich. From the late 1950s onward, the institute adapted to emerging international trends and successfully integrated neurochemistry, neurophysiology, and neuroanatomy into the fledgling interdisciplinary field of neuroscience. This agenda of reorientation was an undertaking of Otto Detlev Creutzfeldt, Detlev Ploog, Gerd Peters, and Horst Jatzkewitz, among others. In the 1970s, Munich's laboratories attracted scientists from several countries in Europe and abroad. This article examines whether specific styles of conducting (neuro)science research existed in the Max Planck Society.

Background Considering the limited accessibility of amyloid position emission tomography (PET) in patients with dementia, we proposed a deep learning (DL)-based amyloid PET positivity classification model from PET images with 2-deoxy-2-[fluorine-18]fluoro-D-glucose (2-[18F]FDG). Methods We used 2-[18F]FDG PET datasets from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative and Korean Brain Aging Study for the Early diagnosis and prediction of Alzheimer’s disease for model development. Moreover, we used an independent dataset from another hospital. A 2.5-D deep learning architecture was constructed using 291 submodules and three axes images as the input. We conducted the voxel-wise analysis to assess the regions with substantial differences in glucose metabolism between the amyloid PET-positive and PET-negative participants. This facilitated an understanding of the deep model classification. In addition, we compared these regions with the classification probability from the submodules. Results There were 686 out of 1433 (47.9%) and 50 out of 100 (50%) amyloid PET-positive participants in the training and internal validation datasets and the external validation datasets, respectively. With 50 times iterations of model training and validation, the model achieved an AUC of 0.811 (95% confidence interval (CI) of 0.803–0.819) and 0.798 (95% CI, 0.789–0.807) on the internal and external validation datasets, respectively. The area under the curve (AUC) was 0.860 when tested with the model with the highest value (0.864) on the external validation dataset. Moreover, it had 75.0% accuracy, 76.0% sensitivity, 74.0% specificity, and 75.0% F1-score. We found an overlap between the regions within the default mode network, thus generating high classification values. Conclusion The proposed model based on the 2-[18F]FDG PET imaging data and a DL framework might successfully classify amyloid PET positivity in clinical practice, without performing amyloid PET, which have limited accessibility.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to provide a commentary on “Exploring new ways of thinking about and developing staff practice: the role of modes of thinking” written by Roy Deveau, John Ockenden and Petra Bjorne. Design/methodology/approach The commentary considers the consistency of Kahneman’s model of thinking fast and slow with brain research. Findings The thinking styles of staff undoubtedly influence their responses to people with learning disabilities. Although Kahneman’s model provides a heuristic approach to tackling prejudicial and biased thinking, it risks incomplete solutions through bypassing some of the factors contributing to staff behaviour. Originality/value This commentary concludes that Kahneman’s model is not completely consistent with knowledge about how the brain is organized. This should be regarded as a limitation of any model seeking to explain decision-making.

Differential gene expression normalised to a single housekeeping (HK) is used to identify disease mechanisms and therapeutic targets. HK gene selection is often arbitrary, potentially introducing systematic error and discordant results. Here we examine these risks in a disease model of brain hypoxia. We first identified the eight most frequently used HK genes through a systematic review. However, we observe that in both ex-vivo and in vivo, their expression levels varied considerably between conditions. When applying these genes to normalise expression levels of the validated stroke target gene, inducible Nox4, we obtained opposing results. As an alternative tool for unbiased HK gene selection, software tools exist but are limited to individual datasets lacking genome-wide search capability and user-friendly interfaces. We, therefore, developed the HouseKeepR algorithm to rapidly analyse multiple gene expression datasets in a disease-specific manner and rank HK gene candidates according to stability in an unbiased manner. Using a panel of de novo top-ranked HK genes for brain hypoxia, but not single genes, Nox4 induction was consistently reproduced. Thus, differential gene expression analysis is best normalised against a HK gene panel selected in an unbiased manner. HouseKeepR is the first user-friendly, bias-free, and broadly applicable tool to automatically propose suitable HK genes in a tissue- and disease-dependent manner, Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL

Brain research has in recent years indisputably entered a new epoch, driven bysubstantialmethodologicaladvances and digitallyenabled data integration and modeling at multiple scales –from molecules to the whole system. Major advances are emerging at theintersection of neurosciencewith technology and computing. This new science of the brain integrates high-quality basic research,systematic data integration across multiple scales, a new culture of large-scale collaboration andtranslation into applications. A systematic approach, as pioneered in Europe’s Human Brain Project(HBP), will be essential in meeting the pressing medical andtechnological challenges of the comingdecade. The aims of this paper are To develop a concept for the coming decade of digital brain research To discuss it with the research community at large, with the aim of identifying points of convergence and common goals To provide a scientific framework for current and future development of EBRAINS To inform and engage stakeholders, funding organizations and research institutions regarding future digital brain research To identify and address key ethical and societal issues While we do not claim that there is a ‘one size fits all’ approach to addressing these aspects, we areconvinced that discussions around the theme of digital brain research will help drive progress in thebroader field of neuroscience. Comments on this manuscript are welcome This manuscriptis a living document that is being further developed in a participatory process. The work has been initiated by the Science and Infrastructure Board of the Human Brain Project (HBP). Now, the entire research community is invited to contribute to shaping the vision by submitting comments.Comments can be submitted via an online commentary form here. All submitted comments will be considered and discussed. The final decision on whether edits or additions will be made to the next version of the manuscript based on an individual comment will be made by the Science and Infrastructure Board (SIB) of the Human Brain Project (HBP) at regular intervals. New versions of the manuscript will be published every few months on Zenodo. Comments may be submitted until the beginning of 2023. During the Human Brain Project Summit 2023, the manuscript will be adopted by HBP and non-HBP participants, and a final version will be published shortly after.

The purpose of this article is to review studies related to the study of primary school children’s brain activity in the educational process. In addition, to find out how common such researches are and to define the main directions of scientists’ activities on the topic, and their chosen research approaches. Methods. Qualitative content analysis was used to select articles suitable for the topic under study: several sets of keywords, journals with a quartile of at least the second, and English language publications were identified as requirements. Results. The analysis of research papers showed an increasing interest in the subject matter among scientists. Six main groups of research in the field of neuroimaging are identified: measurement of cognitive abilities, comparison of age categories, technical and methodological nuances of researches based on neuroimaging, study of the influence of various factors on indicators, use of neuroimaging tools in the learning process, registration of brain activity in children with developmental disabilities. Works devoted to the development of memory and attention are highlighted. The features of the study of mathematical abilities and skills, as well as reading, are considered. Advantages and disadvantages of portable electroencephalography are noted. The features of the magnetic resonance imaging procedure in children with developmental disabilities are indicated. Conclusion. Despite the variety of research areas, the use of brain–computer technologies in the learning process was not found in the review. According to the authors, there is a lack of long-term research with the use of such technologies in the specifics of subject learning, which would allow tracking its progress. Conclusions on the need for further study of this issue are presented.

The Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA) elected academic Tamas Freud for new president of MTA at its 193. Assembly with election of officials, on 7th July 2020. The world-famous neurobiologist followed Laszlo Lovasz as president of the Hungarian scientific public body, which was founded by count Istvan Szechenyi in 1825. After his graduation in 1983, he made researches in Oxford for several years, when he was invited back to Hungary by Szilveszter Vizi E. in 1990 to lead the Department Morphology of the Experimental Medical Scientific Research Institute (Hungarian abbreviation: KOKI) of the Academy of Sciences. Tamas Freund worked as president of KOKI from 2002 and made it to an internationally acknowledged centre of brain research. As Ferenc Oberfrank mentioned it in an earlier interview, the strength of the institute was beside excellent scientific organisation the professional science-management, thanks to the work of Tamas Freund -among others (URL1). It is esteeming to feel that science can help by its research results everyday life. To reach this aim, the new president of the academy intends to build out a good connection network with ministries, governmental institutions and simultaneously to open towards the society. How he imagines to build out this structure, and how he considers the challenges to the Hungarian Academy of Sciences? – about that was asked president Tamas Freund by Zsuzsanna Hornyik. Arrived: 2 December 2020Accepted: 5 January 1020

Summary Recent advances in bioelectronics, such as skin-mounted electroencephalography sensors, multi-channel neural probes, and closed-loop deep brain stimulators, have enabled electrophysiological brain activities to be both monitored and modulated. Despite this remarkable progress, major challenges remain, which stem from the inherent mechanical, chemical, and electrical differences that exist between brain tissues and bioelectronics. New approaches are therefore required to address these mismatches between biotic and abiotic systems. Here, we review recent technological advances that minimize such mismatches by using unconventional soft materials, such as silicon/metal nanowires, functionalized hydrogels, and stretchable conductive nanocomposites, as well as customized fabrication processes and novel device designs. The resulting novel, soft bioelectronic devices provide new opportunities for brain research and clinical neuroengineering.

The human brain is often considered the most complex system known. It has a fantastic capacity to learn and remember, to recognize patterns in space and time, solve problems of all kinds, innovate tools and machines, create beautiful art and science. Is it reasonable to believe that we, in a foreseeable future, will be able to understand all the wonders of our own brain, enough to be able to mimic it and build artificial brains and minds that correspond to or even surpass the capacity of the human origin? Can we seriously believe that we (soon, or ever) will be able to build robots that know of and can reflect upon their own existence? This review of the book, The Brain and AI, deals with such issues, but in a very special way. It is written as a fascinating dialogue between the two authors, Chinese scientist Fanji Gu and German engineer Karl Schlagenhauf, where they discuss the development of neuroscience and artificial intelligence (AI) with a critical examination of given “truths” in these fields. The Brain and AI is indeed worth reading for many reasons, regardless if you are a student or researcher in any of the many fields of science discussed here (e.g. physics, computer science, neuroscience, cognitive science psychology, social science), or if you are just interested in the current and future development of brain research and artificial intelligence. The book is both educating and entertaining and can be strongly recommended.

مثل علم اللسانيات الحاسوبية Computational Linguistics عامة، والمعجمية الحاسوبية خاصة ، بين علوم اللسانيات التطبيقية أهمية کبيرة وطفرة علمية لسانية بالغة الأهمية في العصر الحديث؛ وذلک لما يشهده العصر الحديث من التقدم السريع في کافة مجالات الحياة ، مما کان له الأثر البالغ في محاولة الالتحاق بذلک الرکب السريع ؛ فنشأت الحاجة إلى اللسانيات الحاسوبية بکافة أنواعها کما سيأتي وسيحاول هذا البحث الوقوف على دراسة أحد أهم هذه الأنواع وهو: المعجم الإلکتروني؛ لنتناول خاصية من أهم خصائصه وهي : أنظمة الربط في المعاجم الإلکترونية. مطبقة ذلک على أحد أشهر المعاجم الإلکترونية الرقمية وهو معجم المعاني . ومن ثم جاءت هذه الدراسة بعنوان: ( أنظمة الربط في المعاجم الإلکترونية خصائصها ووظائفها ،معجم المعاني الإلکتروني نموذجا). وقد جاء البحث في مقدمة وأربعة مباحث وخاتمة : المبحث الأول : نحو تحديد مصطلحات الدراسة المبحث الثاني بعنوان : تطبيقات الربط في المعاجم الإلکترونية والمبحث الثالث بعنوان : خصائص أنظمة الربط واستثمار بحوث الدماغ الحاسوبية البحث الرابع بعنوان : وظائف أنظمة الربط من منظور المستعمل ثم جاءت الخاتمة مشتملة على أهم النتائج والتوصيات Computational Linguistics in general, and computational linguistics in particular, represented a great importance among the sciences of applied linguistics and a very important scientific linguistic boom in the modern era. This is due to the rapid progress witnessed in the modern era in all areas of life, which had a great impact in the attempt to join that fast pace; The need for computational linguistics of all kinds arose, as will be mentioned below This research will try to study one of the most important of these types, which is: the electronic dictionary; Let us consider one of its most important characteristics: Linking systems in electronic dictionaries. It applies to one of the most famous electronic digital dictionaries, which is the dictionary of meanings. Then this study came under the title: (Linking systems in electronic dictionaries, their characteristics and functions, the electronic dictionary of meanings as a model The research came in an introduction, four sections and a conclusion: The first topic: Towards defining the terms of the study The second topic entitled: Linkage applications in electronic dictionaries The third topic is entitled: The properties of connectivity systems and the investment of computer brain research The fourth research entitled: Functions of connectivity systems from the user's perspective Then came the conclusion containing the most important findings and recommendations

Individuals of African ancestry have been starkly underrepresented in the pursuit of personalized medicine for brain illnesses. The African Ancestry Neuroscience Research Initiative will seek to generate much-needed brain gene and protein expression profiles for people of African ancestry.

From its inception, the NIH Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) Initiative, an ambitious project focused on understanding the human brain, has made a concerted effort to integrate neuroethics into its science. In the past five years, the BRAIN Initiative has given rise to powerful tools and neurotechnologies capable of probing deeply into the brain circuits in animal models. As these tools mature and move to human applications they will raise a host of important neuroethical considerations not just for the medical community but for society as a whole. Now marks a pivotal moment to assess the status and consider the future of the BRAIN Initiative's neuroethics efforts. Here we describe core issues of neuroscience advances, the state of neurotechnologies in human neuroscience, and how ethics will be incorporated into the BRAIN Initiative as this ten-year project enters its second phase. BRAIN Initiative neurotechnologies have immense potential to transform the way we diagnose and treat neurological disease; therefore, they may become more commonplace in research, medicine, and society. We also discuss future global efforts to ensure continued guidance and open dialogue surrounding neuroethics.

As the Brain Research through Advancing Neurotechnologyies, better known as the BRAIN Initiative moves forward at a rapid pace increasing attention has focused on neuroethics. The National Institut...

Background Uncontrolled studies have reported associations between later Parkinson's disease onset in women and a history of giving birth, with age at onset delayed by nearly 3 years per child. We tested this association in two independent data sets, but, as a control to test for nonbiological explanations, also included men with PD. Methods We analyzed valid cases from the Parkinson's Progressive Markers Initiative incident sample (145 women, 276 men) and a prevalent sample surveyed by the New Zealand Brain Research Institute (210 women, 394 men). Results The association was present in both women and men in the Parkinson's Progressive Markers Initiative study, and absent in both in the New Zealand Brain Research Institute study. This is consistent with generational differences common to men and women, which confound with age at onset in incident-dominant samples. Conclusions Despite being replicable in certain circumstances, associations between childbirth and later PD onset are an artifact of generational cohort differences. © 2020 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

The Golgi method gave birth to modern neuroscience. The Nauta method, developed in a novel Army think tank at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center, was the next major breakthrough before neuroscience emerged as a separate discipline. Dr. Walle Nauta's (1916-1994) method allowed for the first time the ability to trace interneuronal connections accurately to their termination. The think tank, created by Dr. David Rioch (1900-1985), provided a unique intellectual environment for interdisciplinary neuroscience research, the first of its kind. Rioch hired exceptional senior faculty and recruited outstanding young investigators who were drafted into the Army, typically after finishing their M.D.s or Ph.D.s, and were interested in brain research. Many of these young investigators went on to illustrious careers in neuroscience. I worked with Walle Nauta at a time when the technique was first being applied to nonmammalian vertebrate brains. Along with other Army draftees, I was encouraged to pursue my own research interests. This led me on a quest to understand interspecific variability of connections in relation to evolution and ontogeny of the brain. By 1980, I had found that the variability of all known connections could be explained by a theory to the effect that new structures such as the neocortex were not formed by one system invading another and mingling, as Clarence Luther Herrick (1858-1904) had proposed, but by selective proliferation and differentiation sometimes involving the select loss of connections to reduce cross-modality interference as in the case of the parcellation and differentiation of cortical areas. The resulting parcellation theory predicts that elements of a primordial neocortex existed from the beginning of vertebrate evolution and did not originate by an invasion of nonolfactory modalities into the olfactory lobe, as commonly believed before the introduction of the Nauta method. This theory would not have been created if it were not for the brilliant environment that was Walter Reed in the 1960s.

Seeing a talker’s face can aid audiovisual (AV) integration when speech is presented in noise. However, few studies have simultaneously manipulated auditory and visual degradation. We aimed to establish how degrading the auditory and visual signal affected AV integration. Where people look on the face in this context is also of interest; Buchan, Paré and Munhall (Brain Research, 1242, 162–171, 2008) found fixations on the mouth increased in the presence of auditory noise whilst Wilson, Alsius, Paré and Munhall (Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 59(4), 601–615, 2016) found mouth fixations decreased with decreasing visual resolution. In Condition 1, participants listened to clear speech, and in Condition 2, participants listened to vocoded speech designed to simulate the information provided by a cochlear implant. Speech was presented in three levels of auditory noise and three levels of visual blurring. Adding noise to the auditory signal increased McGurk responses, while blurring the visual signal decreased McGurk responses. Participants fixated the mouth more on trials when the McGurk effect was perceived. Adding auditory noise led to people fixating the mouth more, while visual degradation led to people fixating the mouth less. Combined, the results suggest that modality preference and where people look during AV integration of incongruent syllables varies according to the quality of information available. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.3758/s13414-020-02042-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A number of brain research projects have recently been carried out to study the etiology and mechanisms of psychiatric disorders. Although psychiatric disorders are part of the brain sciences, psychiatrists still diagnose them based on subjective experience rather than by gaining insights into the pathophysiology of the diseases. Therefore, it is urgent to have a clear understanding of the etiology and pathogenesis of major psychiatric diseases, which can help in the development of effective treatments and interventions. Artificial intelligence (AI)-based applications are being quickly developed for psychiatric research and diagnosis, but there is no systematic review that summarizes their applications. For this reason, this study briefly reviews three main brain observation techniques used to study psychiatric disorders—namely, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), electroencephalography (EEG), and kinesics diagnoses—along with related AI applications and algorithms. Finally, we discuss the challenges, opportunities, and future study directions of AI-based applications.

Das Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut (KWI) fur Hirnforschung in Berlin-Buch war zwischen 1939 und 1945 insofern in die „Euthanasie“-Aktionen eingebunden, als dort Gehirne ermordeter Patienten im Sinn einer „Begleitforschung“ seziert und so wissenschaftliche Erkenntnisse generiert wurden. Daher stehen diese Institution und ihre Vorgeschichte seit langerem im Fokus wissenschaftshistorischer Untersuchungen. Fur den Neuroanatomen Oskar Vogt (1870–1959), Direktor des KWI bis 1937, und seine Frau Cecile (1875–1962) – beide 1952 zu Ehrenmitgliedern der Deutschen Gesellschaft fur Neurologie (DGN) ernannt – standen die Mikrostruktur und Hirnarchitektur von gesunden bzw. „Elite“-Gehirnen im Vordergrund. Vogts Nachfolger Hugo Spatz (1888–1969) verlagerte die Forschungsaktivitaten in Richtung ZNS-Pathologie und bezog psychiatrische und militarische Institutionen in das Institutsnetzwerk ein. Spatz war seit 1938 Parteimitglied, als Vorgesetzter fur die Sektionen Ermordeter durch Julius Hallervorden mit verantwortlich und versuchte sein Handeln nach dem Krieg zu rechtfertigen. Lange nach Aufdeckung dieser Zusammenhange entschloss sich die DGN 1998, den Hugo-Spatz-Preis umzubenennen. Wilhelm Tonnis (1898–1978), der deutsche Pionier der Neurochirurgie, war seit 1933 Mitglied des Nationalsozialistischen Fliegerkorps, seit 1937 der NSDAP und seit 1938 des NS-Arztebundes. Wahrend des Krieges mit zahlreichen Aufgaben in der militarischen Verwundetenfursorge befasst, versuchte er nach Kriegsende, seine Zugehorigkeit zu NS-Gliederungen herunterzuspielen. Nach Abschluss der Entnazifizierung setzte er seine Karriere erfolgreich in der jungen Bundesrepublik fort. Zwei Jahre vor seinem Tod wurde er 1976 Ehrenmitglied der DGN.

In 1955, Norbert Wiener suggested a sociological model according to which all forms of culture ultimately depended on the temporal coordination of human activities, in particular their synchronization. The basis for Wiener’s model was provided by his insights into the temporal structures of cerebral processes. This article reconstructs the historical context of Wiener’s ‘brain clock’ hypothesis, largely via his dialogues with John W. Stroud and other scholars working at the intersection of neurophysiology, experimental psychology, and electrical engineering. Since the 19th century, physiologists and psychologists have been conducting experimental investigations into the relation between time and the brain. Using innovative instruments and technologies, Stroud rehearsed these experiments, in part without paying any attention at all to the experimental traditions involved. Against this background, this article argues that the novelty of Wiener’s model relies largely on his productive rephrasing of physiological and psychological findings that had been established long before the Second World War.

Vor allem aufgrund seiner Arbeiten zur Pathologie und Biologie der Hirntumoren, die zur Grundlage fur die Klassifikation der WHO wurden, zahlt Klaus Joachim Zulch zu den wissenschaftlich und klinisch herausragenden Neurologen und Neuropathologen in der BRD. In den Jahren 1961 bis 1962 fuhrte er als Vorsitzender die Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Neurologie (DGN), die ihn 1978 zum Ehrenmitglied und 1984 zum Ehrenvorsitzenden ernannte. Neben dem Zulch-Preis der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft richtet die DGN auf ihrem Jahreskongress eine Zulch-Lecture aus. Wie Archivdokumente zeigen, begeisterte sich Zulch fruh fur Ideen des Nationalsozialismus. Er war Mitglied in paramilitarischen Verbanden, trat 1933 der SA und 1937 der NSDAP bei. Nach Ausbildungsstationen u. a. bei Otfrid Foerster in Breslau und Georg Schaltenbrand in Wurzburg war er wahrend des Zweiten Weltkriegs als Truppen- und Lazarettarzt verpflichtet, setzte jedoch seine wissenschaftliche Arbeit am Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut fur Hirnforschung in Berlin bei Wilhelm Tonnis fort. Im Juli 1947 in Hamburg aufgrund der SA-Zugehorigkeit entlassen, legte er Widerspruch gegen diese Entscheidung der Alliierten ein und erreichte in einem langeren Entnazifizierungsverfahren auch mithilfe von fur ihn hilfreichen Stellungnahmen verschiedener Neurologen die Einstufung als „Entlasteter“. So konnte er seine Karriere erfolgreich in Koln fortsetzen und wirkte ab 1959 in einer Doppelfunktion als Direktor der neu eingerichteten Abteilung fur Allgemeine Neurologie des Max-Planck-Instituts und Chefarzt der Neurologischen Klinik Koln-Merheim. Aus historischer Sicht belegt vor allem der Vergleich eines um 1938 selbst verfassten Lebenslaufes mit einem Curriculum Vitae aus der Nachkriegszeit, wie Zulch neben dem Verschweigen ihn belastender Fakten um eine partielle, letztlich erfolgreiche Neukonstruktion seiner Biographie bemuht war.

YELLAMSETTY, Anusha; BIDELMAN, Gavin M. Brainstem correlates of concurrent speech identification in adverse listening conditions. Brain research, v. 1714, p. 182-192, 2019.

The modern thesis regarding the “structural plastic” properties of the brain, as reactions to injuries, to tissue damage, and to degenerative cell apoptosis, can hardly be seen as expendable in clinical neurology and its allied disciplines (including internal medicine, psychiatry, neurosurgery, radiology, etc.). It extends for instance to wider research areas of clinical physiology and neuropsychology which almost one hundred years ago had been described as a critically important area for the brain sciences and psychology alike. Yet the mounting evidence concerning the range of structural neuroplastic phenomena beyond the significant early 3 years of childhood has shown that there is a progressive building up and refining of neural circuits in adaptation to the surrounding environment. This review essay explores the history behind multiple biological phenomena that were studied and became theoretically connected with the thesis of brain regeneration from Santiago Ramón y Cajal’s pioneering work since the 1890s to the beginning of the American “Decade of the Brain” in the 1990s. It particularly analyzes the neuroanatomical perspectives on the adaptive capacities of the Central Nervous System (CNS) as well as model-like phenomena in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), which were seen as displaying major central regenerative processes. Structural plastic phenomena have assumed large implications for the burgeoning field of regenerative or restorative medicine, while they also pose significant epistemological challenges for related experimental and theoretical research endeavors. Hereafter, early historical research precursors are examined, which investigated brain regeneration phenomena in non-vertebrates at the beginning of the 20th century, such as in light microscopic studies and later in electron microscopic findings that substantiated the presence of structural neuroplastic phenomena in higher cortical substrates. Furthermore, Experimental physiological research in hippocampalin vivomodels of regeneration further confirmed and corroborated clinical physiological views, according to which “structural plasticity” could be interpreted as a positive regenerative CNS response to brain damage and degeneration. Yet the underlying neuroanatomical mechanisms remained to be established and the respective pathway effects were only conveyed through the discovery of neural stem cells in in adult mammalian brains in the early 1990s. Experimental results have since emphasized the genuine existence of adult neurogenesis phenomena in the CNS. The focus in this essay will be laid here on questions of the structure and function of scientific concepts, the development of research schools among biomedical investigators, as well as the impact of new data and phenomena through innovative methodologies and laboratory instruments in the neuroscientific endeavors of the 20th century.

In biological research it is common to assume that each organ of an organism serves a definite purpose. The purpose of the brain seems to be the coordination and processing of information which the animal obtains through its sense organs about the outside world and about its own internal state (Bateson 1972). An important aspect of this is the storage of information in memory and the use of the stored information in connection with the present sensory stimuli.

We propose a new research methodology that develops ethical and transparent artificial intelligence algorithms to support decision making in healthcare. This development relies on a diverse statistical and data analysis methodology based on real-life data gathered in brain research and care events of different patient groups. The proposed new research methodology is created, developed and carried out in a broad international multidisciplinary research collaboration with various patient and disabled people's groups, healthcare professionals, educational institutions, and laboratory measurements of experimental brain research conducted at a biomedical research institute. The proposed new research methodology is motivated by the previous research that has given successful classification results with various bio-inspired artificial intelligence algorithms, based on unsupervised learning (such as various clustering algorithms) and supervised learning (such as artificial neural network algorithms) that are implemented following the structural and functional principles of real-life living biological tissues. Non

Brain research has in recent years indisputably entered a new epoch, driven bysubstantialmethodologicaladvances and digitallyenabled data integration and modeling at multiple scales –from molecules to the whole system. Major advances are emerging at theintersection of neurosciencewith technology and computing. This new science of the brain integrates high-quality basic research,systematic data integration across multiple scales, a new culture of large-scale collaboration andtranslation into applications. A systematic approach, as pioneered in Europe’s Human Brain Project(HBP), will be essential in meeting the pressing medical andtechnological challenges of the comingdecade. The aims of this paper are To develop a concept for the coming decade of digital brain research To discuss it with the research community at large, with the aim of identifying points of convergence and common goals To provide a scientific framework for current and future development of EBRAINS To inform and engage stakeholders, funding organizations and research institutions regarding future digital brain research To identify and address key ethical and societal issues While we do not claim that there is a ‘one size fits all’ approach to addressing these aspects, we areconvinced that discussions around the theme of digital brain research will help drive progress in thebroader field of neuroscience. Comments on this manuscript are welcome This manuscriptis a living document that is being further developed in a participatory process. The work has been initiated by the Science and Infrastructure Board of the Human Brain Project (HBP). Now, the entire research community is invited to contribute to shaping the vision by submitting comments.Comments can be submitted via an online commentary form here. All submitted comments will be considered and discussed. The final decision on whether edits or additions will be made to the next version of the manuscript based on an individual comment will be made by the Science and Infrastructure Board (SIB) of the Human Brain Project (HBP) at regular intervals. New versions of the manuscript will be published every few months on Zenodo. Comments may be submitted until the beginning of 2023. During the Human Brain Project Summit 2023, the manuscript will be adopted by HBP and non-HBP participants, and a final version will be published shortly after.

The human brain is the most complex entity we know. Disorders of the human brain are embedded in this complexity. Potential advances in treating these disorders result from the growing understanding of this complex organization. The brains of monkeys have some important similarities to the human brain in structure and organization, and monkeys have therefore been extensively studied to help us to understand human brain disorders. With this in mind, the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) convened a colloquium, “Using Monkey Models to Understand and Develop Treatments for Human Brain Disorders,” in Irvine, California on January 7th and 8th, 2019. The colloquium articles in this issue of PNAS offer a glimpse into the relationship of scientific discovery to the treatment of brain disorders. We begin by considering how this kind of scientific discovery works. The better we know how a machine works, the more likely we are able to fix it when it breaks. When our automobile needs repair, we take it to someone we think understands how it works and therefore is likely to be able to fix it. We do the same thing when we have a brain disorder; we go to the doctor we think understands the brain system underlying the specific disorder and hope that she can provide a treatment. It is the understanding of the brain system that comes first; without that understanding the treatment is likely to be a hit or miss guess or an expensive failure. The understanding is not all or none, it is continually developing, often over many years. Anyone who has close experience with a brain disease knows that current medicine is mostly groping in the dark with these disorders. It is the job of basic science to turn on some lights. Consider an example of the contribution to clinical … [↵][1]1To whom correspondence may be addressed. Email: bob{at}lsr.nei.nih.gov. [1]: #xref-corresp-1-1

The Chinese Imaging Genetics (CHIMGEN) study establishes the largest Chinese neuroimaging genetics cohort and aims to identify genetic and environmental factors and their interactions that are associated with neuroimaging and behavioral phenotypes. This study prospectively collected genomic, neuroimaging, environmental, and behavioral data from more than 7000 healthy Chinese Han participants aged 18–30 years. As a pioneer of large-sample neuroimaging genetics cohorts of non-Caucasian populations, this cohort can provide new insights into ethnic differences in genetic-neuroimaging associations by being compared with Caucasian cohorts. In addition to micro-environmental measurements, this study also collects hundreds of quantitative macro-environmental measurements from remote sensing and national survey databases based on the locations of each participant from birth to present, which will facilitate discoveries of new environmental factors associated with neuroimaging phenotypes. With lifespan environmental measurements, this study can also provide insights on the macro-environmental exposures that affect the human brain as well as their timing and mechanisms of action.

Flexible deep brain probes have been the focus of many research works and aims at achieving better compliance with the surrounding brain tissue while maintaining minimal rejection. Strategies have been explored to find the best way to implant a flexible probe in the brain, while maintaining its flexibility once positioned in the cortex. Here, we present a novel and versatile scalable batch fabrication approach to deliver ultra-thin and flexible penetrating neural probe consisting of a silk-parylene bilayer. The biodegradable silk layer provides a temporary and programmable stiffener to ensure ease of insertion of the ultrathin parylene-based flexible devices. The innovative and yet robust batch fabrication technology allows complete design freedom of the neural probe in terms of materials, size, shape and thickness. These results provide a novel technological solution for implanting ultra-flexible and ultrathin devices, which possesses great potential for brain research.

The adult human brain contains ∼86 billion neurons (1). Zooming into its cellular and subcellular details to reveal different aspects of neuronal connectivity is a key area of research. However, to link the different spatial scales from the synaptic level (at nanometer range) through single neurons and glial cells (at the micrometer level) to the whole organ is most challenging. Recently, the connectome of Caenorhabditis elegans, with its 302 neurons, has been characterized, and a complete structural-functional model has been proposed (2). A comparable level of detail of the human brain connectome is still a long way off. As such, decoding the human connectome, the mechanisms of signal transduction, and relationships to brain function are linked to exponentially growing challenges in advanced computational and storage technologies, which in turn may lead to creative solutions beyond neuroscience.

Preclinical brain positron emission tomography (PET) in animals is performed using anesthesia to avoid movement during the PET scan. In contrast, brain PET scans in humans are typically performed in the awake subject. Anesthesia is therefore one of the principal limitations in the translation of preclinical brain PET to the clinic. This review summarizes the available literature supporting the confounding effect of anesthesia on several PET tracers for neuroscience in preclinical small animal scans. In a second part, we present the state-of-the-art methodologies to circumvent this limitation to increase the translational significance of preclinical research, with an emphasis on motion correction methods. Several motion tracking systems compatible with preclinical scanners have been developed, each one with its advantages and limitations. These systems and the novel experimental setups they can bring to preclinical brain PET research are reviewed here. While technical advances have been made in this field, and practical implementations have been demonstrated, the technique should become more readily available to research centers to allow for a wider adoption of the motion correction technique for brain research.

Brain banking occupies a central role for the advancement of the study of human neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases. The smooth functioning and effectiveness of a brain bank is largely a multidisciplinary effort and requires the cooperation and participation of several players including neurologists, neuropathologists, and research coordinators to guarantee that donated tissue is properly processed and archived. If properly run, brain banks can ultimately lay the foundation for new brain research and pioneer the discovery of new therapies for a variety of neurological diseases.