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Visual interpretation of satellite images is a very significant technique to recognize and interpret structural features, which indicate lateral growth of folds, the origin of folds, and dating of folds using the exposure dating method. In this study, Landsat 8 (ESSRI) and Google Earth images are used to recognize structural features at Pira Magroon, Surdash, and Azmar anticlines in the Sulaimaniyah vicinity, Kurdistan Region, north of Iraq. The mentioned anticlines are outstanding geomorphological and structural features in the Sulaimaniyah vicinity. The recognized and interpreted structural features include: en-echelon folding, domes, and Neotectonic indication. All these features are discussed in detail with many images to show the discussed cases, most of the interpreted data and presented figures are never mentioned previously.

In the valley of the Euphrates River to the south of the Haditha city (West Iraq), the dissolution of the carbonate rocks which underlie residual soil gives rise to numerous sinkholes. These sinkholes are a potential hazard to human safety and damage to the existing infrastructure. The exposed rocks in the area under consideration belong to the Euphrates Formation of the Early Miocene age, specifically the Middle Member of the formation. Tens of sinkholes have developed with different shapes, sizes, activities, and maturities, others are under development indicating that the karstification process is still ongoing. Some of the sinkholes have spectacular scenes and can be used for touristic purposes. The karstification process has a negative impact on the infrastructure in the Haditha vicinity, especially the Hadith Dam, where extraordinary treatments to the foundation of the dam were considered to be in a safe status. We have studied different published articles and reports, which dealt with the karstification in the Haditha vicinity. Moreover, we have interpreted satellite images, and topographical and geological maps to recognize the existing sinkholes and study them. Filed trips were performed for long interrupted intervals (1984 until 2022) to collect significant data and perform field photographs for the interesting scenes.

The structural forms (folds and faults) in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region exhibit more complexity in the northern and northeastern parts of the region; accordingly, complicated geomorphic forms were developed too. This is attributed to the collision of the Arabian and Eurasian plates with a convergent boundary that runs about 35 – 40 km northeast of the studied area. Many long and tight anticlines exist in the studied area, the majority of them exhibit very complex forms, such as being faulted and their axes being bent. The main characteristic structural and Geomorphic recognized forms based on the interpretation of high-quality satellite images are: Domes, en-echelon plunges, overturned beds, faulted anticlinal and synclinal axes, abandoned and recent alluvial fans, water and wind gaps, wine glasses, and different valley shapes. The recognized structural forms are quite different from those previously presented on the geological maps of different scales, and the forms are good indications for the lateral growth of the anticlines. A Field check was carried out to check some ambiguous interpreted data and to confirm the new findings.

The Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KRI) forms the northeastern part of the Arabian Plate that is colliding with the Eurasian Plate. Due to the ongoing collision, the whole KRI territory is folded; accordingly, long anticlines are developed in NW – SE trend, they change west wards to almost E – W. The Cretaceous carbonate rocks form the bulk of the anticlines; in the central part of KRG. North and northwest wards, rocks of Paleozoic, Triassic and Jurassic ages are exposed in the core of some anticlines. Whereas southwards, Tertiary rocks are exposed in the core of anticlines. From tectonic point of view, the KRI territory is located in four tectonic zones; each has its own characteristics. Majority of the developed anticlines at the KRI are thrusted and exhibit lateral growth. We have presented many examples of laterally growing anticlines with clear indications for their growth.

The Sinjar Anticline (Mountain) is an outstanding structural and geomorphic feature in the northwestern part of Iraq. The anticline is a double plunging with almost E – W trend dividing the gently rolling plain in which it is developed into two parts, Al-Jazira Plain in the south and Rabi’a Plain in the north. The Sinjar anticline is asymmetrical with steeper northern limb (45 – 80)° and gentler southern limb (15 – 25)°, its length is about 80 km, whereas the width ranges between (9.25 – 12. 5) km. The oldest exposed rocks belong to the Shiranish Formation, whereas the youngest rocks belong to the Fatha Formation. Different geomorphological and structural forms were observed through interpretation of satellite images, geological and topographical maps of different scales, beside field observations. Among those forms are: Abandoned alluvial fans, radial, inclined, and cross-shaped valleys, whale-back shape, wind gaps, and parasitic folds. All these forms are good indications about the lateral growth of the anticline. Neotectonic measurements were carried to estimate the rates of upward and downward movements. These estimations were performed by measuring the elevation of the contact between the Fatha (Middle Miocene) and Injana (Late Miocene) formations at different selected locations on both sides of the anticline. Keywords: Sinjar anticline, lateral growth, neotectonic movements, wind gap, abandoned alluvial fans

The study area lies in the Lower Folded Zone of the Outer Platform of Iraq, which belongs to the Arabian Plate. The Outer Platform is a part of the Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt, which is in the Zagros Foreland Basin. Due to the collision of the Arabian and Eurasian plates, tens of folds were developed among the anticlines that occur in the study area. The course of the Greater Zab River in the study area crosses several anticlines before merging with the Tigris River. Different river terrace levels were recognized locally as three levels along the course of the river. It is clear from the achieved data that the rates of an incision during the Early, Middle and Late Pleistocene are: 5.036 mm/ 100 years, 8.979 mm/ 100 years, and 18.117 mm/ 100 years, respectively. The maximum rate of upward movements (3.485 mm/ 100 year) was recorded at 700 m from Bekhme gorge, where the first exposures of the Fatha and Injana formations exist. The maximum rate of downwards movement (13.769 mm / 100 year) was recognized at the southeastern part of Barda Rash anticline. The rate of the upwards movement decreases towards the southeast, and the minimum rate of downwards (7.314 mm / 100 year) was recorded in Sarta oil well 1 location, near the Greater Zab River. The rates of the upwards and downwards movements are not regular. This is attributed to the existence of anticlines and synclines, which means Neotectonic activities.

A new highway is under construction since few years to join the capital; Erbil city with many main towns connecting; in the plan to the northern boarders of the Iraqi Kurdistan Region. It is a double lane road constructed according to modern standards. It crosses many mountains, and two tunnels are already completed, one is almost completed and another one is abandoned: hitherto. The completed part of the highway reaches the Hareer town with some parts being under construction before and after the Shaqlawa town. Because parts of the Highway are not completed yet; therefore, those parts suffer from slope stability problems; mainly due to the drainage problems. Other completed parts; however, suffer also from slope stability problems; mainly due to steep slope road cuts and/ or irrelevant treatments for the road cuts. Among those unstable slopes, we have chosen six stations, which experienced the most severe failures. At those six stations, we have applied field method to estimate the possibility of failure following Bejerman’s method. We have found that the failure possibility is high in the station Nos. 1- 4, and is Low in the station Nos. 5 and 6.

Many geological formations are exposed in the Pira Magroon anticline (Mountain); in the northeastern part of the Kurdistan Region, Iraq. The components of the exposed formations are carbonate rocks, especially limestone, which might be utilized for different industrial uses. To have an industrial assessment for the exposed limestone beds in the Pira Magroon anticline, Zewe Gorge has been chosen for sampling, where the Shiranish and Kometan formations are exposed in the outlet of the gorge. Eleven samples have been collected within the Shiranish and Kometan Formations starting from the bottom of the Kometan Formation, with different sampling intervals. Thereafter, the samples were prepared to be tested by XRF machine; in order to show the concentrations of the main oxides in the collected samples. The weighted averages were calculated from the concentrations of the oxides, and then the averages were indicated. Accordingly, the data was compared with the Iraqi and other industrial standards, to know the usage of the tested rocks for different industries. The acquired data showed that the carbonate successions of the Kometan and Shiranish Formations of the Zewe Gorge in the Pira Magroon Anticline, can be used in cement production.

The Bekhme Formation forms almost the bulk of the Shakrook anticline, especially the limbs. The current research deals with studying the exposed beds within the Bekhme Formation at the Shakrook anticline to check the suitability of the exposed rocks at the northeastern limb of the anticline for the cement industry. Twenty rock samples from a section which lies along a deeply cut valley that crosses the northeastern limb of the Shakrook anticline within the Bekhme Formation were collected. The channel sampling method was applied; therefore, each sample represents the concerned sampling interval and to be representative for the thickness of the sampled interval. The total thickness of the sampled section is 110 m with a covered interval of 15 m, totaling to 125 m. The collected 20 samples were prepared at the laboratory of the Koya University and were subjected to XRF test at the Tarbiat Modares University, Iran, to indicate the concentration of the main oxides (CaO, MgO, Al2O3, Fe2O3, Na2O, K2O, and SO3), and Cl and L.O.I. The indicated concentrations at each sample, from both universities, were compared and were found to be almost coinciding. The average concentrations at each sample were changed to weighted averages and the results were compared with the Iraqi standards for cement industry. The results revealed that the sampled rocks are excellent for cement production.

Al-Najaf Governorate covers a large part of the western side of the Southern Desert of Iraq and extends to the Iraqi-Saudi Arabian borders. The western and southern western parts have almost a desert environment with flat terrain, which is dissected by tens of valleys; all trend in SW- NE direction and drain to the Euphrates River. The area under consideration is covered by Umm Er Radhuma, Dammam, Euphrates, Ghar, Nfayil, Injana, and Zahra formations ranging in age from Paleocene to Pleistocene age, with different types of Quaternary sediments. The main rock types are limestone and dolostone, with subordinate amounts of marl, sandstone, claystone, and breccia. One of the main characteristics of this wide and flat plain is the karstification, which is expressed by development of sinkholes. Seven large sinkholes were studied with detailed characteristics of each sinkhole to indicate the genesis of their development and relation between them. From the seven studied sinkholes, six are still active, and one of them called Soga’a sinkhole was developed in 1944.

The Bradost and Chinara mountains are two well-known geomorphic features in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region (IKR), forming two anticlines, besides Shireen and Sare Musa anticlines, which are located north of the Bradost anticline, all four anticlines trend NW – SE. The four anticlines are dissected by the Greater Zab River that swings along its course within the anticlines due to tens of very old landslides and/or plunges. The four studied anticlines are dissected by different thrust faults, which extend for a few kilometers. The thrust faults trend NW – SE; however, locally they deflect from the main trend. The Lower Jurassic rocks are the oldest exposed rocks in the studied area, whereas the rocks of the Bekhme Formation form the carapace of the Bradost and Chinara anticlines. Different structural and geomorphological features were interpreted from satellite images and those which are accessible were checked in the field, all of them indicate the four anticlines exhibit lateral growth. We have measured different aspects to elucidate the type of folds. The four anticlines are Detachment folds, with shallow decollement, which ranges in depth between (100–250) m. Validerad;2023;Nivå 2;2023-07-18 (sofila)

Iraq, like most Middle Eastern countries, is suffering from the effects of Climate Change. The effects are in form of deterioration and degradation of lands, including agricultural lands, an increase in dust storms, an increase in daily temperatures, decreasing annual rainfall, decreasing annual snowfall, decreasing annual water income in the main rivers, streams and ephemeral wadis, increasing of desertification, increasing of areas covered by sand dunes, decreasing of green areas, decreasing of wetlands. According to regional studies, the living conditions and environment after 3 - 4 decades in Iraq and some neighboring countries will be very difficult, especially due to increasing daily temperatures and decreasing annual rainfall. To conduct the current study, we have reviewed tens of published articles, and scientific reports followed by relevant interviews on TV, and daily observations of events caused by climate change. One of the most common reasons for climate change is the emission of CO2, and the most common reason contributing to the increase of the effects of climate change is the absence of awareness in the community and the deficient official preparedness. The preparedness, however, to avoid and/ or mitigate the effects of climate change is very low, not only on the governmental level but also on popular scales. Therefore, the harsh effect of climate change increasing in severity and causing great damage to infrastructure, and personal properties, and is leading to more causalities. Recommendations to mitigate the consequences of climate change are given in two scales, governmental and popular. Godkänd;2023;Nivå 0;2023-05-04 (joosat);Licens fulltext: CC BY License

The Iraqi Western and Southern deserts are part of the Iraqi Stable Shelf (Inner Platform) that belongs to the Arabian Plate. Therefore, both deserts lack tectonic forms like folds and faults; however, very rarely faults and regional lineaments can be seen in both deserts. Although both deserts are tectonically stable, tens of Neotectonic indications can be seen everywhere in both deserts. Among those indications are: Straight valleys, perpendicular valley bendings, sinkholes aligned along straight lines, dislocated valleys, knickpoints within valleys aligned along straight lines, regional lineaments, anomalous valley shapes, trends, and types, dissected alluvial fans. We have used existing geological maps of different scales and Esri World Imagery to recognize those Neotectonic indications. All those recognized features are excellent indications that both the Iraqi Western and Southern deserts are tectonically not stable. Accordingly, new terminology is suggested instead of the Stable Shelf (Inner Platform) which is the “Less Disturbed Shelf”. Godkänd;2023;Nivå 0;2023-05-30 (hanlid)

The Shakrook anticline has very a complicated structural form, this is attributed to three thrust faults, and the presence of four anticlinal axes with the main anticlinal body. The most northwest existing anticline is called in the current study the Sisawa anticline, the main two anticlines are called the Shakrook East and Shakrook West, whereas the fourth one is called the Biluk anticline it is developed along the southwestern limb of the Shakrook East anticline. The exposed rocks in the Shakrook anticline range from Upper Jurassic to the Paleogene age. The bulk of the main Shakrook anticline is formed by the Bekhme Formation (Upper Cretaceous age), whereas the bulk of the Sisawa anticline is formed of the Shiranish Formation (Upper Cretaceous age) with Paleogene and Neogene aged rocks. Geological maps and high-quality satellite images were used to elucidate the complex structural form of the Shakrook anticline. The updated geological map is quite different from those existing geological maps. A field investigation was carried out to check the interpreted data and to implement photography to the interested structural and geomorphological forms. Different geomorphological forms also were interpreted; they all refer to the lateral growth of the Shakrook anticline.

The Qamchuqa Formation is widely exposed in Kurdistan Region (IKR); north of Iraq. The formation along with the Bekhme Formation form the bulk of the main mountains (anticlines) in the IKR. Among those anticlines is the Ranya anticline, which has a NW – SE trend, where the Qamchuqa Formations has a thickness of about 700 m. The main lithological facies of the formation are limestone, dolomitic limestone and dolomite. We have sampled the uppermost 89 meters of the northeastern limb, by collecting 10 samples of different sampling intervals that range from (3 – 12) m. The ten rock samples were tested by an XRF to measure the concentration of the oxides at each sample. The XRF results showed that the 10 rock samples are limestone with different percentages of oxides. The weighted averages of the oxides in the collected samples have been calculated, and the results showed that the limestone beds along the studied section in the upper part of the Qamchuqa Formations are suitable for the cement industry. The average concentration of CaO and MgO is 55.13 % and 0.26 %, respectively.

The main lithological composition of different formations in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region is the carbonate rocks; some of those rocks are suitable for cement production; such as Qamchuqa Bekhme, Sinjar, Pila Spi and Anah formations. However, the six existing cement plants in are using limestone beds, five of those plants are using limestone from the Sinjar Formation, and one plant is using limestone from the Anah Formation. Recently, performed research works confirmed that the limestone beds within the Qamchuqa, Bekhme and Pila Spi formations are very suitable for cement production. The current research work deals with studying the exposed limestone beds within the Bekhme Formation at Hareer Mountain in the central part of IKR to check their suitability for the cement industry. Accordingly, we collected 12 rock samples from a section within the Bekhme Formation at an almost constant sampling interval (5 m); however, for two samples the sampling interval was 6 and 8 m (sample No. 2 and 12, respectively). Each sample represents a channel sample for the concerned sampling interval to be representative for the thickness of the sampled interval. The total thickness of the sampled section is 64 m with a covered interval of 30 m, totaling up to 94 m. The collected 12 samples were prepared at the laboratory of the University of Kurdistan Hewler and were subjected to XRF test at Mass Cement Plant (Sulaimaniyah) to check the concentration of certain oxides that are used in the Iraqi Standard for cement production. The acquired concentrations of the main oxides (CaO, MgO, Al2O3, Fe2O3, Na2O, K2O, SO3), and Cl and L.O.I. at each sample were changed to weighted averages and the results were compared with the Iraqi standards for cement industry. The result was the sampled rocks are excellent for cement production.

The Iraqi territory is located in the extreme northeastern part of the Arabian Plate which is in collision with the Iranian (Eurasian) Plate. The collision which is still ongoing has created tens of folds some of them exhibit different types of faults. The exerted compressional forces are believed to be decreasing southwest wards as being far from the collision area. Accordingly, all the existing tectonic and geological maps compiled by different authors and all the existing published articles, reports and books have considered two main tectonic domains in Iraq. The Stable Shelf and Unstable Shelf or Inner Platform and Outer Platform. The contact between these two main divisions follows almost the Euphrates River; towards west of the river is the Stable area and towards east and north is the Unstable area.In the current study, we have recognized tens of different Neotectonic evidences in the Stable part indicating that the area is tectonically not stable. Among those indications are abandoned valleys, development of sinkholes along certain lineaments, bending of valleys in normal angles, development of Nick points in valleys along certain lineaments.

The Pirmam and Bana Bawi anticlines are two elongated anticlines located in the central northern part of the Kurdistan Region of north Iraq (KRI), in the northeastern part of the Arabian Plate. We have used satellite images and geological maps to interpret the presented data and to calculate the rates of uplift and down wards (subsidence) amounts, besides estimating the rates of deposition and incision of some alluvial fans and stream terraces. Most of the achieved data were checked in the field. In the Pirmam anticline the rate of the uplift and subsidence is 8.613 mm/ 100 year and 7.962 mm/ 100 year, respectively, whereas in the Bana Bawi anticline the rates are 3.036 mm/ 100 year and 4.365 mm/100 year, respectively. The indications of the lateral growth are the presence of water gaps, wind gaps, en-echelon plunging, whale-back shape and different types of valleys. We have calculated the depositional and incision rates in the Kori and Bastoora streams. They are 5.204 mm/ 100 year and 5.555 mm/ 100 year, respectively in the former, whereas in the latter are 3.469 mm/100 year and 8.731 mm/ 100 year, respectively. Moreover, we have calculated the depositional and incision rates in old and recent alluvial fans. In the former, they are 1.665 mm/ 100 year and 0.722 mm/ 100 year, respectively, whereas in the latter are 3.036 and 4.365 mm/ 100 years, respectively. Godkänd;2023;Nivå 0;2023-03-30 (hanlid)

Implementation of a Quality Assurance (QA) program in geological investigation is very significant and essential, especially when the investigation is carried out for selection and evaluation of strategic and vital project sites. The current work is a case study for selection and evaluation of a strategic site in Iraq where a QA program was implemented for the first time in the Iraq Geological Survey (as a Contractor) as a mandatory condition implied by the Client for all work carried out and included in the geological investigation. The geological investigation included six main activities: 1) geology, 2) hydrogeology, 3) geophysics, 4) engineering geology, 5) drilling and 6) laboratory work. The main roles of QA staff were to: 1) check the qualifications of all staff members involved in the six activities, 2) verify work procedures by means of which the staff members of each activity were performing their tasks, 3) follow-up all carried out works in the field, laboratory and office, 4) verify all types of work outputs by the staff members of the six activities, and 5) recognize any nonconformance in any type of carried out work before been recognized by the QA and/ or Quality Control (QC) staff of the Client. During the performance of the contract that lasted for 30 months, three nonconformance cases by the Contractor were recognized by the QA staff members and relevant corrective actions were performed. The three cases were not detected or recognized by the QA and QC staff members of the Client.

Haditha Dam is constructed on the Euphrates River in the western part of Iraq completed in 1988 and located 14 km west of Haditha town. Haditha Dam is a combined earthfill and concrete dam with a total length of 9064 m. The maximum height of the dam is 57 m from the deepest point at the river channel and dam crest level is 154.00 m (a.s.l.). The storage capacity is 6×109 m3 at normal operation water level of 143 m (a.s.l.). The exposed formations in the dam site and reservoir area are the Euphrates (Lower Miocene) and Fatha (Middle Miocene) formations. Both formations are well known in Iraq to be karstified at different intensities. The right bank of the Euphrates River is severely karstified with tens of sinkholes of different shapes, dimensions and activities. The presence of the karstified rocks is the main reason the dam has a very long grout curtain which extends along its entire length and includes the concrete powerhouse and spillway structure in the river channel, and the right and left bank extensions. The right bank extension of the grout curtain is exceptionally long due to the extent of the sinkhole area. Grouting was performed here in boreholes drilled at one-meter spacing to reduce water penetration and movement through the flank of the dam. The grout curtain under the embankment in the river section was done in two rows, while under the concrete structure it is comprised of three rows of holes. The left bank extension has two rows. The depths of all parts of the curtain varied following the karstification zones and intensities. The main aim of the current study is to elucidate and discuss the influence of the karstified rocks at the dam site and reservoir on the design and especially the length of the dam and the need for side extensions.

The road that crosses the Haibat Sultan Mountain in the northern part of Iraq; is one of the dangerous roads in this region. To perform a slope stability analysis for the dangerous parts of the road, we have used Bejerman’s Method. We have reviewed satellite images of the road and all those potential areas were checked in the field; accordingly, eleven stations were recognized. Landslide Possibility Index was determined at the studied stations following Bejerman’s field method. The road climbs the southern face (dip slope) of the mountain through very hard carbonate rocks of the Pila Spi Formation, where the bedding planes daylight in the slope face near the road cuts. This produced many large landslides. Along the northern face of the mountain, the road runs through soft clastic rocks where joint planes in the rock mass intersect and daylight in the slope face near the road cut. In order to prevent future wedge failures, a 30 m offset was created from the toe of the slope to the road. In almost all cases, the Landslide Possibility Index indicated a moderate to very high likelihood for failure along all road cuts.

The Iraqi Western and Southern deserts are part of the Iraqi Stable Shelf (Inner Platform) that belongs to the Arabian Plate. Therefore, both deserts lack tectonic forms like folds, faults; however, very rarely faults and regional lineaments can be seen in both deserts. Although both deserts are tectonically stable; but tens of Neotectonic indications can be seen everywhere in both deserts. Among those indications are: Straight valleys, perpendicular valley bending's, sinkholes aligned along straight lines, dislocated valleys, knickpoints within valleys aligned along straight lines, regional lineaments, anomalous valley shapes, trends and types, dissected alluvial fans. We have used existing geological maps of different scales and Esri World Imagery to recognize those Neotectonic indications. All those recognized features are excellent indications that both the Iraqi Western and Southern deserts are tectonically not stable. Accordingly, new terminology is suggested instead of the Stable Shelf (Inner Platform) that is “Less Disturbed Shelf”.

There are many hazardous roads in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region (IKR) which traverse through mountainous terrains. One of these roads was selected for a geotechnical assessment in this paper. The road crosses the Haibat Sultan Mountain, north of Koya town in IKR; it is one of the most dangerous roads in this region. Annually, traffic is blocked by various types of slope failures along this road. There are numerous observed examples where bedding planes in the slope face daylight next to the road. To assess the road geotechnically, several stations of the Haibat Sultan Crossing road were studied to determine their stability using the Kinematic Analysis Method. A total of 11 stations were identified with the highest potential for slope failure. It was determined that only four stations (Nos. 4, 5, 7 and 9) could be evaluated using kinematic analyses. The kinematic analyses for the four stations were performed using DipAnalyst 2.0 software. The analyses identified the potential failure areas and their factors of safety (F.S.). The factors of safety at these four stations were calculated and ranged between 0.66 – 0.85 indicating unstable slopes. Based on this information, remedial measures were recommended at these locations and along associated sections of the road.

Shanidar Cave is located in north Iraq (Kurdistan Region), it is one of the most well-known caves in the region due to its archeological significance. It is an archaeological site which is located within Bradost Mountain north of Erbil city. In the cave, eleven skeletons of Neanderthals, have been found dating back to 65000 – 35000 years B.C., they were called Shanidar (1-11). The cave also contains two later proto-Neolithiccemeteries. The cave is developed due to dissolution of limestone beds of the Qamchuqa Formation which forms the carapace of Bradost Mountain (anticline). Currently, the cave and the downslopes to the foothills of the mountain are limited by a fence. The cave can be reached by a paved road to the foothills level, then by stepping following artificially constructed leader which is designed and constructed by local materials from stones and wood giving to the leader a natural view. The Shanidar cave is highly recommended to be a national Geopark due to its archeological significance

A stream survey was conducted in the Sidakan vicinity in the northeastern part of the Iraqi Kurdistan Region, which covered the catchment area of the main stream. The covered area is about 450 km2. The exposed rocks in the study area are mainly igneous with subordinate sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. The catchment area was divided into 14 sub-basins using Global Mapper software. The junction point of the valleys at the end of each sub-basin was sampled. From each junction point, 2 stream sediments were collected. The samples were sieved using the wet method into 2 mm fractions, before the fractions were subjected to x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The results obtained from both tests were used to calculate the concentrations of 9 elements (Cr, Ni, Co, Cu, U, Ag, V, Zn, and Cd). The element concentrations are presented in 9 concentration maps after normalizing the concentration values. Some anomalous results were found. The average concentrations of Ag and Cd were nearly 120 and 266 times higher than the background concentrations (6 mg/kg and 16 mg/ kg, respectively). The acquired data also showed interesting average concentrations for the elements Co, Cr, Ni, and U (280 mg/kg, 999 mg/kg, 375 mg/kg, and 12 mg/kg, respectively). All of these anomalous concentrations are discussed and possible reasons for their existence are given.

Gara and Mateen are 2 major anticlines in the northern part of the Iraqi Kurdistan Region, located in the vicinity of the town Amadiyah. Both anticlines are oriented in an almost east–west (E–W) trend with a steep southern limb. The length and width of the Gara and Mateen anticlines are 87 km and 63 km, and 11 km and 9.5 km, respectively. The 2 anticlines are separated by a wide and shallow syncline filled by the Tertiary rocks of the Pliocene–Pleistocene age. The oldest exposed rocks in the Gara and Mateen anticlines are from the Triassic age. The carapace of both anticlines is built up by the Bekhme and Qamchuqa formations. The geomorphological and structural features were studied through satellite images and geological maps. Based on these studies, it was found that both anticlines show clear geomorphological and structural features that indicate their lateral growth. Among those features are water and wind gaps, different shapes of valleys that indicate lateral growth, abandoned alluvial fans, whale-back shapes, en-echelon plunges, and multiple dome anticlines. Furthermore, the rate of upward movements was calculated using neotectonic data. In addition, the rate of river and stream incisions was calculated on the basis of the height of the river terrace levels.

When a dam is built, its safety becomes a constant concern for the owner, the public and for governments. Therefore, continuous observation through routine inspections and safety reviews become necessary. Acting as protectors of public safety, governments and professional organizations save no effort in the promulgation of legislations and laying out guidelines for such inspections and reviews. These issues are discussed here starting with the basic first step of visual inspections by the operators and the follow up of detailed safety reviews by specialists. Careful visual inspections assisted by instrumentation measurements may reveal an early negative issue such as, but not limited to, increased seepage, increased uplift pressure, signs of weakness like cracking in the body of the dam, or dams’ slope sloughing, and even damaged hydraulic control equipment. Documenting and reporting these observation helps in taking remedial measures in good time and may lead to more intensive safety reviews. Suggested check lists for the inspection engineers are given here, but these may be tailored for each dam according to its needs. These lists cover issues common to both embankment and concrete dams, and include other specific issues related to each type of them. Metal equipment take their share by listing such areas as corrosion, fatigue and cracking, tear, and wear and so on. Instrumentation measurements are also given their due consideration by giving brief mention of types of measurements needed and points to be observed in instrumentation control work. Finally, guidelines, rules, and legislations for Dam Safety Reviews are generally discussed giving examples from four countries in the world. Validerad;2020;Nivå 1;2020-09-29 (johcin)

The use of geophysical methods in dam sites investigations and safety monitory has proved their good value and versatility in many earthfill dam sites as early as the 1920s. In the following years great development has occurred in the methods, application procedures and tools used. They may be considered today as good ways for carrying out observation tasks on existing dams in non-intrusive and much faster and cheaper ways than the traditional geotechnical methods. It is possible using them to discover anomalies in the dam body or its foundation at an early stage and allowing quick intervention repair works. These methods seek to register and present variations in the basic geotechnical material properties in dams such as; bulk density, moisture content, elasticity, mechanical properties of rocks, electrical resistivity and mineralogy and magnetic properties and so forth. Such variations can indicate increasing seepage flow, progression in cracks’ sizes, formation of voids, caverns and other instability manifestations. Depending on how any investigation is carried out and the targeted anomaly, there is now selection of these methods such as: Electromagnetic Profiling (EM), Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT), Self- Potential (SP), Ground Penetration Radar (GPR), variety of Seismic Methods (SM) which can be applied using such equipment as in Seismic refraction, Seismic Reflection, Multi Analysis of Rayleigh surface waves (MASW) instruments, or using Refraction Micrometer (ReMi), macro-gravity method, and Cross-Hole Seismic Tomography. In addition, Temperature Measurements and other less used methods can be used like Microgravity measurement, Magnetic Profiling and Radio Magnetotelluric methods. An attempt is made here to cover the details of these methods, their advantages and limitations and to prove their usefulness in many dam sites all over the world. One observed issue is their adaptability to embankment dams more than to concrete dams and their popularity for checking seepage related problems and material changes within dam bodies and their foundations such as formation of voids and sinkholes. Validerad;2020;Nivå 1;2020-09-29 (johcin)

Dam Safety and dam incidents are treated here looked at from the "Human Factors" perspective. An attempt is made to explore these factors as an important drive in impairing dams’ safety and increases their risks. Distinction is drawn between the "Normal Human Caused Incidents" and the "Extraordinary Human Caused Incidents" together with the description of their root origins and subsequent consequences. The first type includes unintentional mistakes, errors and flaws committed by the operators of dams inadvertently, in addition to negligence, lack of experience or overconfidence. Such failings can happen in manual operation of dams, or through the use of their Supervision, Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems as in industrial control system (ICS). They can occur also due to flaws in software or even in the application of information and communication technology (ICT) in remote control operations. As for the second group; the extraordinary human factors, they are defined here as those committed by man with the full understanding of their possible damage. They are done purposely for destabilizing dams after thoughtful and carefully meditated decision making process and they are manifested in acts of war, sabotage and terrorists actions. In this modern age, these acts are characteristics of hackers’ attacks on dam(s) operating systems. This is done through the use of cyberspace by the widespread interconnected digital technology with the accompanying advances in the communication technologies. As such, these technologies have made remote control of such systems possible. Not limited to this, dams remain now, as they were always in the past, the obvious targets in wars and conflicts to inflict losses on the enemy and to use them as weapons, and for terrorism actions for challenging governments. Examples of the aforementioned threats are described with examples given from real cases to elucidate the dangers involved. Lessons to be learned from these incidents are derived and recommendations are presented to be followed to avoid risky situations. Validerad;2020;Nivå 1;2020-09-29 (johcin)

Tailings’ Dams are mining waste impounding structures. They differ from conventional dams in purpose, design and operation. Percentage wise their failures are higher and posing considerably more safety concerns, causing long lasting devastation on communities, environment, and animal and plant ecosystem. Two basic types of embankment tailings structures are used for tailings impoundments; the Retention Dams and the Raised Dams. Retention dams are built in one operation to a full height, while construction of Raised Dams is a continuous process lasting for the whole useful life of the mine. Raised Dams are favored over Retention dams as they can be enlarged and expanded as the extraction works continue with time. Raised embankment dams themselves can be of three alternative designs according to the method used in construction; the Downstream, Upstream and Centerline structures. This designates the direction in which the embankment crest moves in relation to the initial embankment at the base as successive lifts are added. Resulting from the used method of tailings weight disposition, the Upstream Raised Dams are the least safe in earthquake prone areas as compared to the other two types due to its higher possibility of liquefaction, so they are not favored in highly seismic areas. The disadvantage of Downstream Raised Dams is their use of larger land areas. Centerline Raised Dams are a compromise between the other two. Tailing Dams failure may occur due to: dam instability, overtopping, internal erosion, or combination of these. Instability can result from faulty design and/ or faulty tailings deposition method. Internal erosion can follow saturation of the fill due to fast rate of work and close proximity of the water pond to the dyke combined with downstream gullying, and overtopping happens in case of faulty water management and/ or inoperable decan system. Careful analysis of historic failures and drawing out new lessons from them can help reducing failure probability and enhance tailings’ dams’ safety.

Silica-sand is one of the main additives in cement production. Cement plants in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region had been using silica sand which is 98% quartz that was quarried from the Iraqi Western Desert. However, during the last decade, it was not possible to supply these cement plants with material from this location; therefore, the silica sand was imported from Iran. Recently, radiolarian chert of the Qulqula Group was quarried from the Sharbazhar Quarry in Kurdistan and used in some cement plants in the Kurdistan Region. This research was performed to study the specifications of the chert which is interbedded with claystone of the Qulqula Group that can be used as an alternative to silica-sand from other regions outside of Kurdistan. Five samples were collected from the Sharbazhar Quarry and subjected to XRF testing. The acquired results were encouraging; therefore, 20 additional samples were collected from the quarry, but also from other outcrops of the Qulqula Group along the road towards Sulaimaniyah city. The collected samples were subjected to XRF testing and the results showed that the weighted average of the SiO2 in the quarried chert–claystone deposit is 83.71%., when the plants used claystone:chert ratio is 3:2; as it is used with mix-raw material in some cement plants in the Bazian district. This deficiency in the weighted average of the SiO2 is overcome by adding more chert from the chert–claystone deposit to the raw-mix.

Qara Dagh anticline is one of the main anticlines in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region with NW – SE trend. It is a double plunging anticline almost symmetrical and consists of six minor anticlines some of them exhibit en-echelon plunges. The anticline shows many indications of lateral growth which indicate Neotectonic activities. Among those indications is the Darbendi Bazian abandoned alluvial fan. In this study, the details of the fan are presented and discussed as interpreted from satellite images. The interpreted data is checked in the field and it is found that the alluvial fan is a large fan showing typical symmetrical fan. It is a single stage fan covered by fine materials. The thickness of the fan ranges from (2.5 – 6) m, whereas its length and width are 4.18 km and 1.35 km, respectively. The fan was originated from Tinal stream which was draining the area behind the apex towards south and south west and nowadays flows in an opposite direction. The alluvial fan’s geometry, constituents, genesis and mode of deposition are given and discussed.

Handreen, Zozik and Tanoun are three major anticlines in the northern part of Iraqi Kurdistan Region located NE of Rawandouz town. All anticlines are oriented NW-SE with a steep southwestern limb. The length and width of Handreen, Zozik and Tanoun anticlines are 20.2 km, 23 km, 27 km, and 10 km, 4.7 km and 2.5 km, respectively. The anticlines are separated by very narrow synclines. However, Tanoun anticline is thrusted over Zozik anticline causing the disappearance of the synclinal axis between the two folds. The oldest exposed rocks in Handreen anticline are the Cretaceous age, in Zozik anticline are the Upper Jurassic rocks, whereas in Tanoun anticline, the Lower Jurassic rocks are exposed. The carapace of Handreen and Zozik anticlines is built up by Bekhme and Qamchuqa formations and that of Tanoun anticline by the Qamchuqa Formation. Satellite images and geological maps were used to recognize the geomorphological and structural features which were checked and confirmed in the field. Handreen, Zozik and Tanoun anticlines show clear geomorphological and structural features which indicate their lateral growth. Among those features are water gaps, wind gaps, forked-shaped valleys, curved valleys, inclined (curved) valleys, radial valleys, abandoned alluvial fans, wale-back shape, en-echelon folds and folds with malty domes.

The Pila Spi Formation is one of the prominent formations forming continuous ridges in Kurdistan Region. The thickness of the formation ranges from 15 to 110 m, consisting of well-bedded limestone, dolomite, dolomitic limestone, and very rare marl beds. The study area is located about 15 km east of Koya town, next to the abandoned tunnel through a deeply cut valley which has exposed 50 m of the formation. However, the uppermost part of the exposed section may belong to one of the Oligocene formations of Kirkuk Group. The study area was selected within the Pila Spi Formation because the rocks of the same formation and along the same ridge, about 45 km west of the study area showed encouraging results for cement industry. The average CaO is about 51%, whereas the average MgO is 1.8%. Therefore, eight samples were collected at constant thickness from the exposed section. The samples were subjected to X-ray fluorescence (XRF) test to indicate the main oxides in the sampled section. The acquired results from the XRF tests showed that the chemical composition of the exposed rocks within the Pila Spi Formation is suitable for cement industry, also for paper and paint but needs some treatment. Accordingly, another eight samples were collected from the same section to increase the density of sampling, totaling to 16 samples.

Safeen anticline is one of the most complicated anticlines in Iraqi Kurdistan Region (IKR), with NW–SE trend. Structurally, the anticline is truncated by different types of faults; some of them are deep-seated faults, which have complicated the subsurface form of the anticline. The anticline includes two domes with two parasitic anticlines and synclines along both limbs. Moreover, two hanging synclines exist northeastwards and one southwestwards. Six possible deep seated transversal faults may occur along the anticline, dissecting the anticline in NE–SW trend and extending northeastwards and southwestwards. Moreover, the deep-seated faults dissect many anticlines on both sides of the Safeen anticline. The deep-seated faults have contributed to the complexity of the anticline, as compared to other anticlines in the Zagros Fold–Thrust Belt, especially inside IKR, and have negative impact to the oil exploration activities in the anticline. Therefore, the drilled Safeen Oil well 01 has missed the target. We have used satellite images from land viewer website + Terraincognita app to study the structural style of the anticline, and to recognize different structural features. Field investigation was carried out to check the interpreted data. Validerad;2022;Nivå 1;2022-07-01 (sofila)

Mosul and Haditha dams are two large earthfill dams in Iraq constructed on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, respectively. The two dams were constructed almost at the same period in the mid-eighties of the last century. Both dams suffer from karstification within their foundations. In the former, however, the problem is more severe than the latter. Mosul Dam was constructed on karstified gypsum and limestone beds; different grouting techniques were used, but the works in grouting are still going on to keep the dam as safe as possible as the sealing of the foundation is hampered by the type of geology. Haditha Dam was constructed on karstified limestone and gypsum rocks also. To avoid the effect of the karstification on the safety of this dam, an exceptionally long grout curtain was constructed as foundation treatment work. The length of the grout curtain extended under the earthfill dam and the concrete structures in the river channel and extended beyond the abutments forming left and right sides extensions to cut off water percolation around the dam which could cause the formation of sinkholes. The depths of all parts of the curtain varied following the karstification zones and intensities. The details of both dams are discussed using updated data and relying on the experience of the authors. The current status of both dams is also discussed with some recommendations to keep both dams as safe as possible. Godkänd;2022;Nivå 0;2022-01-12 (johcin)

The Climate change is a global issue affecting different parts of our planet where we are living. However, the reasons of climate change and consequences differ at different parts too. In Iraq, including the Kurdistan Region, the reasons for the climate change are due to man-made and natural effects, where the rates of CO2 emission and those of other greenhouse gasses are increasing drastically, besides the global warming, decrease in the amount of water income in rivers and streams from Turkey and Iran, decrease of rain and snow fall, increase of population. All these have direct impact on the climate and accordingly the consequences are coming harsher and seriously effective on the daily life of the people. In this research, different man-made and natural effects, which directly affect the climate change are presented and described. Moreover, predictions and recommendations are given to decrease the consequences of the climate change in Iraq among them the status of awareness is one of the main reasons to climate change, besides the global warming. Godkänd;2022;Nivå 0;2022-06-20 (sofila);DOI för värdpublikation: 10.17406/GJHSS

Erbil city is constructed in a flat plain with moderate gradient increasing northwards, the plain is dissected by tens of ephemeral wadis. The maximum elevation in the high lands NE of Erbil city is 1062 m (a.s.l.), whereas the elevation of the center of Erbil city is 420 m (a.s.l.). The average gradient from the highest part to the center of the city is 2.15%, increasing towards northeast to reach 4.79%. The mean annual rainfall is 365 mm, while the average monthly rainfall is about 24.42 mm. The site of the city is mainly covered by alluvial fan sediments. Towards northeast, however, the exposures of the Bia Hassan Formation, which consists of alternation of conglomerate and claystone cover considerable areas (82 km2) and form the high lands NE of Erbil city. The exposed rocks are thick claystone alternating with coarse conglomerate. Two very heavy torrential rain events have caused flash floods in Erbil city on 30th October and 17th December 2021. The rainfall intensities were 52 mm/day and 60 mm/day, respectively, causing destructive floods. The most affected areas were Zirin (north of Erbil) and Dara Too (northeast of Erbil), respectively, with very heavy property damages and tens of fatalities. The main reasons for the floods were the partially constructed embankments of the 150 m ring-road, and the urban development within large and wide drainage basins. Different climate data were used for the purpose of this article, with field checks. Godkänd;2023;Nivå 0;2023-01-02 (johcin)

Climate change impacts on Earth’s atmosphere have caused drastic changes in the environment of most regions of the world. The Middle East region ranks among the worst affected of these regions. This has taken forms of increasing atmospheric temperatures, intensive heat waves, decreased and erratic precipitation and general decline in water resources; all leading to frequent and longer droughts, desertification and giving rise to intensive and recurrent (SDS). The present conditions have led to increasing emissions of (GHG) in the earth atmosphere. All future projections especially those using (IPCC) models and emission scenarios indicate that the Middle East will undergo appreciable decrease in winter precipitation with increasing temperature until the end of this century both of which are inductive to increased dryness and desertification. Iraq as one of the countries of this region and due to its geographical location, its dependence mostly on surface water resources originating from neighboring countries, long years of neglect and bad land management put it in the most precarious and unstable position among the other countries of the region. Modelling studies have shown that Iraq is suffering now from excessive dryness and droughts, increasing loss of vegetation cover areas, increasing encroachment of sand dunes on agricultural lands, in addition to severe and frequent (SDS). These negative repercussions and their mitigations require solutions not on the local level alone but collective cooperation and work from all the countries of the region. Validerad;2022;Nivå 1;2022-07-18 (sofila)

Shanidar Cave is one of the most well-known caves in Iraqi Kurdistan Region. It is an archaeological site located within Bradost Mountain north of Erbil city. Eleven skeletons of Neanderthals, have been found within the cave dating back to 65000 – 35000 years, they were called Shanidar (1 – 11). The cave also contains two later "proto-Neolithic" cemeteries.

Dams are engineering structures constructed for different purposes. They are of different sizes, shapes and types. In all cases, many essential studies should be carried out before deciding the location, type and size of the dam. Among those studies is the geological investigations which should be carried out to deduce the geological conditions in the most relevant site, depth of the foundations and their types, cut-off depth, type of the available construction materials, and type of the expected geological hazards. Without proper geological investigations, the siting of a dam will cause serious hazards during construction and during commissioning of the dam. In this study, Mosul Dam case is considered as the consequences of inadequate geological investigations which were carried out by the contractor and supervised by Swiss Consultant. The location of the dam site and its foundations are built over a highly karstified area, where gypsum and limestone beds are exposed and exist deep under the ground surface, and even deeper than the foundations. Accordingly, grouting treatment was carried out and still on going, but all the attempts to have a safe and relevant dam were in vain. In this study we have provided the essential studies which should be included during the geological investigation to have a safe and sound dam.

Aqra Anticline is a double plunging anticline, oriented NW–SE with a steep southwestern limb and even overturned. Geomorphological features are interpreted using satellite images, as a result, it was found that the anticline shows clear geomorphological and structural features which indicate the lateral growth of the anticline. Among those features are water gaps, wind gaps, forked-shaped valleys, curved valleys, inclined valleys and dislocated and abandoned alluvial fans. Some of the vague interpreted features were checked and confirmed in the field.

Quarries of different types and uses and quarried materials can be foundeverywhere in the Kurdistan region, Iraq. The main quarries are those of limestone used for cement production, and they are of multiphases and are well designed. Other quarries are randomly located without any scientific aspects; these are used for local purposes, mainly for aggregates. However, they are all polluting the environment (air, water, and soil) in different intensities and moods.

Climate Changes have impacted our planet since the beginning of time. These were manifested by cyclic Ice Ages and Warm Periods ever since. The changes were caused by natural forcing such as, continental drift, plate tectonics, major volcanic eruptions, and internal dynamics of earth and oceans interactions with the atmosphere. The present warm period, the “Holocene Epoch”, is not different from other such periods except for the sharp global warming which began at the onset of the industrial revolution. This was proven by scientific research to be due to anthropogenic drives, i.e., increased fossil fuel burning and increased Co2 and other Green House Gases (GHG) emissions into the atmosphere. These gases trap the sun radiation reflected from earth surface and result in higher earth temperature. The steep rate of rise in temperature trend since 1960s is directly linked to the use of much more fossil fuels in power production and transportation. This has led to more research to quantify the changes and their impacts on the environment and humans. This paper gives a brief history of the scientific research carried out hitherto and policy suggestions made so far to combat the negative impacts of the increasing global warming of the world. Needed future scientific research in this field is outlined, while at the same time suggesting the needs of Iraq of such research. This includes among other things, forming a regional scientific panel for the Middle East countries (ME. IPCC) for carrying out research on regional level, fostering research on national level, encouraging academics for climate change-oriented research and providing the necessary funds and facilities for such research.

Al-Anbar Governorate has the largest coverage area among the 18 Iraqi gover-norates. The coverage area is about 138 579 km2 forming about 32% of the whole coverage area of the Iraqi territory. The governorate forms the western part of Iraq representing the Iraqi Western Desert and a small part north of the Eu-phrates River within the Jazira Plain. This large coverage area with diversity of rock types with large time span (Permi-an – Pleistocene) and different topographic forms have contributed to develop-ment of different types of geological hazards, which act at different parts of the governorate with different intensities and different damages caused to the infra-structure and community, even life losses. Three main types of geological hazards are active in the governorate; these are: 1) Floods, 2) Karstification, and 3) Swell-ing (Expensive) clays; however, other types like mass movements, depressions, active tectonic areas are also present but with less significance as their risks and caused damages to the community and infrastructure is concerned.