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Development of practical approaches for the evaluation of environmental impact caused by the production of goods and services is one of the most relevant and debated topic in Industrial Ecology (IE).

Tässä diplomityössä haluttiin selvittää miten johdon laskentatoimen eri menetelmiä voidaan hyödyntää kasvavassa pk-yrityksessä. Lisäksi selvitettiin miten menetelmiä tulisi ottaa käyttöön ja minkälaisella aikataululla. Diplomityön kohdeyritys oli Uudellamaalla toimiva kasvava ympäristöhuoltoalan yritys, joka työllistää noin 40 henkilöä. Yrityksen koko oli siinä vaiheessa, että yrityksen omistajat halusivat muodollisempaa informaatiota johtamisen tueksi. Tausta-ajatuksena oli myös se, että he eivät välttämättä ole itse mukana yrityksen operatiivisessa toiminnassa tulevaisuudessa. Siksi dokumentoidun ja muodollisen informaation rooli tulee korostumaan. Diplomityö toteutettiin laatimalla teoriaosuus aiheesta kirjallisuuskatsauksen muodossa. Oppikirjoista haettiin tietoa johdon laskentatoimen perusmenetelmistä. Sen lisäksi tietoa johdon laskentatoimen menetelmien soveltamisesta sekä käyttöönotosta haettiin tieteellisistä artikkeleista. Teoriassa keskityttiin tutkimuksiin kohdeyrityksen kaltaisista yrityksistä. Teoriaosuuden pohjalta pidettiin suunnittelupalavereita yrityksen omistajien ja diplomityön tekijän kesken, joissa laadittiin suunnitelma johdon laskentatoimen menetelmien käyttöönotosta. Sen lisäksi tähän diplomityöhön sisältyi suunnitelman ensimmäisen vaiheen, eli kustannuslaskennan toteuttaminen. Diplomityön tulokseksi saatiin suunnitelma, eli ns. roadmap, johdon laskentatoimen menetelmien käyttöön ottamiseksi kohdeyrityksessä. Suunnitelma pohjautui teoriaosuudessa esitettyyn tietoon sekä kohdeyrityksen omistajien päätöksiin. Suunnitelmassa päätettiin ottaa käyttöön toimintoperusteinen kustannuslaskenta toteutettavaksi kaksi kertaa vuodessa, suorituksen mittaus aloittamalla henkilöstön osaamisella ja lisäämällä mittauskohteita tulevaisuudessa, ennusteiden hyödyntäminen seurannassa ja toiminnan suunnittelussa sekä investointilaskelmat esimerkiksi kalustohankinnoissa tukemaan päätöksentekoa. Toinen diplomityön tulos oli toimintoperusteisen kustannuslaskennan toteutus ensimmäistä kertaa yrityksessä. Laskennan toteuttamisen avulla saatiin lähes valmis runko tulevaisuuden laskentoja varten. Lukuja muuttamalla saadaan suoraan tulokset ja laskentaa voidaan myös kehittää tarkemmaksi. Tämän diplomityön yhteydessä toteutetun kustannuslaskennan tulokset eivät ole täysin luotettavia ja niissä voi olla vääristymiä. Ne ovat kuitenkin järkevässä mittakaavassa ja herättivät jo tässä vaiheessa joitakin ajatuksia kohdeyrityksen toiminnasta.

The main topic of the paper is an experiment described by Hopkins, Houston and Peters published in Accounting Review in 2000. Their study concerned on impact of accounting method on judgement of analysts in case of accounting method selection for the business combination reporting. This experiment demonstrated the influence of selected accounting method on judgement of analysts regardless of the sole business combination reported via different ways.

Research studies demonstrate wide variation in how physicians diagnose and treat patients with similar medical conditions and suggest that at least some of the variation reflects inefficiencies and unnecessary medical costs. Health care researchers are actively examining ways to reduce variations in practice through standardization of medicine to reduce the cost of treatment and ensure the quality of outcomes. The most widely accepted form of this standardization is Evidence Based Best Practices (EBBP). Furthermore, financial health care providers such as hospitals and managed care organizations are investigating methods to tie resource usage to medical protocols in their efforts to monitor and control health care costs. Such proposals are contentious because they report on physicians’ medical practice behaviors (such as the number of tests ordered, use of specific therapies, etc.) and such reports could potentially be used to influence their clinical behaviors. The intent of this exploratory study was to examine physicians’ perceptions about linking a standard costing system to EBBP guidelines. The authors interviewed nine practicing physicians asking each physician to respond to the question, ‘As a physician working in a hospital environment, what are your reactions to and concerns with combining standard costing techniques with EBBP?’ The interviews were in-depth and free form in nature. The physicians’ responses were recorded and analyzed using Grounded Theory Methodology. Using this methodology the field data was categorized into two major themes. The most important theme centered on ethics and the second theme was concerned with the implementation and use of a standard cost system in regard to EBBP. If physicians’ worries about ethical dilemmas and implementation issues are not resolved, then it is likely that doctors would be unwilling to participate in any efforts to develop or use a standard cost-reporting system in medicine. While this study was exploratory in nature, it should provide future guidance to accountants, health care researchers and health care providers about physicians’ issues with the use of standard costing methods in medicine.

Full cost (FC) dan successful efforts (SE) adalah dua alternatif metoda akuntansidalam memperlakukan pengeluaran untuk eksplorasi dan pengembangan dalam industri minyak dan gas bumi. Dalam tahun 1977, Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) meniadakan metoda kos penuh dan peniadaan tersebut segera dibatalkan oleh Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) dalam tahun 1978. Berbagai studi telah membahas masalah ini dan memusatkan perhatian lebih pada reaksi pasar terhadap ketidakpastian status standar daripada reaksi pasar terhadap kandungan informasi laba (earnings).Penelitian ini menggali lebih jauh asosiasi antara metoda akuntansi dan variabilitas tanggapan pasar terhadap pengumuman laba.Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menentukan apakah pasar bereaksi secara berbeda terhadap pengumuman laba antara perusahaan FC dan SE. Penelitian ini memberikontribusi pada literatur tentang earnings response coefficient (ERC) dengan caramembandingkan ERC untuk perusahaan FC dan SE dan sekaligus menawarkan model alternatif dalam pengukuran laba kejutan (unexpected earnings). Penelitian ini menguji perbedaan ERC secara cross-sectional dalam kaitannya dengan karakteristik perusahaan.Penelitian ini mendapati bahwa estimasi secara pooled cross-sectional mendukung temuan sebelumnya yaitu ERC untuk perusahaan SE secara statistis lebih besar daripada ERC untuk perusahaan FC terutama untuk perusahaan FC dalam selang return sebelum (termasuk) hari pengumuman laba.Keywords: successful efforts, full cost, quality of earnings, pooled cross-sectionalestimation, oil and gas industry

Previous research demonstrates that auditors' directional goals influence their reporting decisions. For example, when auditors have goals of accepting client-preferred accounting methods, they tend to exploit ambiguity in reporting standards to justify those methods, even when they are aggressive (Hackenbrack and Nelson 1996). We report an experimental investigation of the likely effectiveness of regulation designed to curb this tendency. Specifically, regulators suggest that having auditors identify benchmarks or assess the quality of various methods will “raise the bar” for method acceptability, thereby reducing auditor acceptance of aggressive reporting methods. However, this reasoning ignores the fact that ambiguity typically surrounds quality assessment. Following motivated reasoning theory, we argue that, in order to meet the increased standard for acceptability, auditors with high commitment to directional goals will exploit the ambiguity surrounding the quality of various methods when making quality assessments, with the result that the client-preferred method will be deemed best, or at least of high enough relative quality to be used. This theory suggests that auditor acceptance will increase with goal commitment, and that the increase will be most dramatic when quality assessment is performed. Results of our experiment support our hypotheses that performing a quality assessment amplifies the effects of auditors' directional goals on their acceptance of client-preferred methods and on their ratings of the quality of that method. Moreover, auditors making quality assessments are more likely to identify the client's method as the most appropriate method when they are more committed to their directional goals. An implication of our theory and results is that regulation (such as SAS No. 90) that requires auditors to make quality assessments may decrease auditors' objectivity when auditors have directional goals to accept client methods.

I en värld där människan är det enda djur som lämnar efter sig avfall som inte kan brytas ned naturligt, är det viktigt att avfallet vi producerar tas om hand på bästa möjliga sätt. EU har därför tagit fram en prioriteringsordning för hur avfallet ska behandlas. Denna kallas avfallshierarkin och ska ligga till grund för medlemsländernas lagstiftning om avfallshantering. I Sverige kallas byggsektorn för den ”40-procentiga sektorn” vilket syftar på att 40 procent av Sveriges avfall genereras av denna sektor. Till år 2020 har EU som målsättning att 70 viktprocent av allt bygg- och rivningsavfall ska återvinnas eller återanvändas. För att presentera säkra siffror som visar ländernas utveckling mot EU:s mål måste avfallsstatistik tas fram på ett bättre sätt än vad som görs i dagsläget. Detta examensarbete syftade till att beräkna de miljömässiga och ekonomiska konsekvenserna vid källsortering av blandat byggavfall samt analysera vilken av de tillgängliga metoderna för framtagning av byggavfallsstatistik som är lämpligast. En screening av innehållet i det blandade avfallet vid ett renoveringsprojekt hos Telge Bostäder tillsammans med uppgifter om genererad avfallsmängd i ett tidigare genomfört renoveringsprojekt användes för att göra beräkningarna. Den befintliga hanteringen, där avfallet sorterades som blandat avfall, jämfördes sedan med ett hypotetiskt scenario där det vid screeningen identifierade innehållet (plast, trä och wellpapp) istället sorterades ut i separata fraktioner. Beräkningarna gjordes dels i ett av program (WAMPS) framtaget av Svenska miljöinstitutet (IVL) för beräkning av utsläpp från hantering av hushållsavfall och dels med egna beräkningar över koldioxidutsläpp. Kostnaden för att sortera ut avfallet bestämdes genom att använda Sorteras sortiment och prislista. Resultatet från WAMPS var att utsläpp av 62 ton koldioxid kunde undvikas från avfallshanteringen genom att sortera ut innehållet i drygt 70 ton blandat byggavfall i separata fraktioner på byggarbetsplatsen. Motsvarande siffra vid egna beräkningar blev 95 ton. Container- och behandlingskostnaden för det sorterade avfallet var lägre än för det osorterade avfallet vilket medförde att den totala avfallskostnaden för drygt 70 ton blandat avfall hade kunnat sänkas med 63 000 kronor om avfallet hade källsorterats. Analysen av redovisningsmetoder pekade på att det på kort sikt lämpligaste sättet att ta fram byggavfallsstatistik på, är att använda miljörapporter från avfallsbehandlingsföretagen som underlag för avfallsstatistik. Denna metod kräver ingen lagändring för att genomföras och utnyttjar ett redan befintligt rapporteringssystem. In a world where mankind is the only creature that generates waste that cannot be naturally decomposed, it is of great importance that we correctly take care of the waste we produce. The EU has therefore developed a list of priority regarding methods of waste treatment. It is called the waste hierarchy and is supposed to form the basis for legislation on waste management. In Sweden the construction sector is called “the 40 percent sector” which refers to the fact that 40 percent of Sweden’s waste is generated by this sector. By 2020, the EU has set up a goal that 70 weight percent of all construction and demolition waste must be recycled or reused. In order to present secure statistics that show the member nations’ progresses toward the goal, the waste statistics must be produced in a better way than today. This master thesis aimed to calculate the environmental and economic consequences with source sorting of the mixed construction waste and to determine the best available accounting method to produce construction waste statistics. A screening of the content of the mixed waste at a renovation project at Telge Bostäder together with data over the generated waste quantity in a previously conducted renovation project, were used to make the calculations. The existing management, where the waste was sorted as mixed waste, was then compared with a hypothetical scenario where the content encountered during the screening (plastic, wood and cardboard) was sorted out separately instead. Calculations were then made partly in a program (WAMPS) developed by IVL to calculate the emissions from household waste management and partly with own calculations of carbon dioxide emissions. The cost of sorting out the waste was determined using Sortera’s catalog and price list. The result of WAMPS was that emissions of 62 tons of carbon dioxide could be avoided from the waste management process by sorting about 71 tons of mixed construction waste at the construction site. The corresponding amount at own calculations was 95 tons. The cost of containers and cost of treatment of the sorted waste was lower than the costs for mixed waste, which meant that the total waste related cost of managing 71 tons of mixed waste would have been reduced by 63 000 Swedish crowns if the waste had been source sorted. The analysis over accounting methods indicated that in the short term, the most appropriate way to produce construction waste statistics is to use environmental reports from the treating companies as a basis. This method does not require a change in the law to be implemented and utilizes an existing reporting system.

Tropical forestry is often not competitive with agricultural land uses such as pasture for cattle ranching. Additional revenues from carbon sequestration generated by the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol can change this situation. In three different zones of north-western Ecuador, minimum compensation payments for carbon sequestration were determined, which would make reforestation a feasible land-use alternative. Based on our findings that these minimum prices depend on the net benefit of the respective land-use alternatives, and on the accounting regimes for CDM sink projects, we applied the accounting rules for temporary and long-term Certified Emission Reductions (CER) to two reforestation projects: forest plantation and natural regrowth of secondary forest. A comparison of these alternatives showed that secondary forest is an attractive alternative under both accounting regimes because of its low establishment costs and relative early timber revenues. After identifying the zone most suitable for carbon sink projects, we calculated net benefits of land-use changes in the event that certain prices for emission reductions were actually paid. We found that secondary forest becomes economically attractive, if the price of permanent credits is above $4.5/tCO 2 , whereas forest plantations require permanent CER prices of $7.0/tCO 2 . In both cases, the results are within the price margins forecasted by various institutions for the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol. The presented methodology is meant to support the decision making process on the supply side of a future CER market. Opportunity costs of land-use changes have to be analyzed carefully before deciding in favor of long binding forestry projects. Assigning temporary credits to naturally regrown secondary forests could–although excluded from CDM during the first commitment period–combine the advantages of a flexible accounting regime with the positive economic and ecological effects of this competitive land use.

Lizing se javlja kao oblik financiranja kojim davatelj lizinga prenosi na korisnika lizinga pravo na korištenje određene imovine u određenom vremenskom razdoblju. Računovodstveno obuhvaćanje lizinga, od vrlo mnogo vrsta lizinga koje postoje u praksi koristi podjelu na financijski i operativni lizing, Njihove karakteristike definirane su prvenstveno nacionalnim zakonima, općim postavkama civilnog i trgovačkog prava, međunarodnim standardima od kojih su u Europskim zemljama prihvaćeni Međunarodni računovodstveni standardi MRS (International Accounting Standards - IAS), a u SAD USGAAP (United States - Generally Accepted Accounting Principles). Različita klasifikacija lizinga koja proizlazi iz ovih propisa ima utjecaj na temeljne financijske izvještaje.

While bioenergy plays a key role in strategies for increasing renewable energy deployment, studies assessing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from forest bioenergy systems have identified a potential trade-off of the system with forest carbon stocks. Of particular importance to national GHG inventories is how trade-offs between forest carbon stocks and bioenergy production are accounted for within the Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) sector under current and future international climate change mitigation agreements. Through a case study of electricity produced using wood pellets from harvested forest stands in Ontario, Canada, this study assesses the implications of forest carbon accounting approaches on net emissions attributable to pellets produced for domestic use or export. Particular emphasis is placed on the Forest Management Reference Level (FMRL) method, as it will be employed by most Annex I nations in the next Kyoto Protocol Commitment Period. While bioenergy production is found to reduce forest carbon sequestration, under the FMRL approach this trade-off may not be accounted for and thus not incur an accountable AFOLU-related emission, provided that total forest harvest remains at or below that defined under the FMRL baseline. In contrast, accounting for forest carbon trade-offs associated with harvest for bioenergy results in an increase in net GHG emissions (AFOLU and life cycle emissions) lasting 37 or 90 years (if displacing coal or natural gas combined cycle generation, respectively). AFOLU emissions calculated using the Gross-Net approach are dominated by legacy effects of past management and natural disturbance, indicating near-term net forest carbon increase but longer-term reduction in forest carbon stocks. Export of wood pellets to EU markets does not greatly affect the total life cycle GHG emissions of wood pellets. However, pellet exporting countries risk creating a considerable GHG emissions burden, as they are responsible for AFOLU and bioenergy production emissions but do not receive credit for pellets displacing fossil fuel-related GHG emissions. Countries producing bioenergy from forest biomass, whether for domestic use or for export, should carefully consider potential implications of alternate forest carbon accounting methods to ensure that potential bioenergy pathways can contribute to GHG emissions reduction targets.

The research is designed to identify factors that determine the management decisions to choose one or the other tangible fixed asset accounting method. The article offers a systematic analysis of factors determining the choice of tangible fixed asset accounting methods that is based on research by Lithuanian and foreign scientists and hypotheses of the positive accounting theory. The research produced a theoretical result: it identified groups of factors that determine the choice of tangible fixed asset accounting methods including a flow chart of the factor and accounting method interaction, which can be used to develop a profit increasing or profit decreasing accounting policy. The factors are broken down into factors of the internal and external environment. Financial and human factors are attributable to the internal environment factors, while economic and technological factors are regarded as factors of the external environment. It was found that the financial leverage and the firm value maximization are the key factors in the financial factor group as they affect the management determination to opt for profit increasing tangible fixed asset accounting methods, while technological factors have an effect on profit decreasing tangible fixed asset accounting policy choice. Economic (the national economic situation and factors of the political process, such as the size of the company, its profitability, and the industry branch it belongs to) and human factors provide an opportunity to use both: profit increasing or profit decreasing tangible fixed asset accounting methods. The research results will contribute to a most correct choice of the tangible fixed asset accounting methods by the company management, appropriate management decisions, and achievement of the objectives. Keywords: accounting policy, tangible fixed asset accounting methods, factors, profit increasing, profit decreasing, and performance results.

The emission of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, and the consequent potential for climate change are the focus of increasing international concern. Eventually, an international agreement will likely be enacted to reduce greenhouse gas emission levels and assign rules for emission trading within and between countries. Temporary land-use change and forestry projects (LUCF) can be implemented to offset permanent emissions of carbon dioxide from the energy sector. Several approaches to accounting for carbon sequestration in LUCF projects have been proposed. In this paper, the economic implications of adopting some of these approaches are evaluated in a normative context, based on simulation of Australian farm-forestry systems.

Most of affiliated hospitals to colleges and universities are subordinate to the financial departments. Cash basis of accounting is used in these hospitals. But with the introduction of the new Financial Regulations for Institutions of Higher Learning, more requirements are imposed on cost accounting and performance appraisal, which makes the strengths of accrual basis of accounting more visible. In this paper, the author conducts a comparative study and draws a conclusion that adding accounts receivable and payable and accrual basis of accounting to the existing cash basis of accounting is conducive to the authenticity of financial information.

The transformation of Poland’s economic system in the 1990s as a result of transition from a centrally planned economy to a market-based system involves significant changes in the regulatory context and in accounting practice and education. This paper presents the scope of application of management accounting concepts and methods in 60 Polish enterprises covered by a questionnaire survey carried out by the author between November 1998 and December 1999 in enterprises located in central and southern Poland. The selected companies were interviewed by means of a postal survey, with inquiry forms delivered in person in some cases. The detailed analyses carried out in this paper and the conclusions presented are also based on information obtained from documentary evidence kept by the enterprises and from direct interviews conducted in the course of work in teams engaged in analysis and assessment of cost accounting practices and in management accounting system design in a number of large and medium Polish enterprises. The empirical research carried out is aimed at verification of a number of hypotheses including the following: • modification of cost accounting systems and implementation of management accounting tools in Polish enterprises is brought about by many different factors, the most important being growth of competition and ownership changes in business entities, • Polish enterprises mostly implement the methods and techniques of operational management accounting, • short-term budgeting for cost centres is the most widely used method of management accounting.

This paper is a case study of China's recent reforms in hospital accounting. We analyze the Chinese health care system in transition to highlight the changing role and nature of accounting services before and after the recent reforms. Prior to reforms, the accounting system provided data solely for government central planning purposes. Reforms were expected to decentralize hospital decision making, thus signaling a need for a new accounting system that would provide information to managers and resource providers. However, the government continues to maintain control by fixing basic medical service prices at levels below cost while allowing profit margins for pharmaceutical sales and other advanced medical services. This schizophrenic policy of quasi-decentralization/macro-control has resulted in an accounting information system that serves neither the need of managers nor external resource providers. In January 1999, major reforms were instituted in China's hospital accounting system, creating a more streamlined structure. The legacy of the command economy, however, remains clearly evident in the areas of revenue control and state subsidies. Hospital accounting in China is therefore subject to the ongoing evolution of the government's health care policy.

Cities generally adopt territorial- or production-based rather than consumption-based emissions accounting systems but they find difficult to adopt a specific emissions standard. Due to the diverse calculation methodologies cities use, inter-city emission reductions and climate action comparisons remain challenging. It is crucial to learn how cities address climate change mitigation and adaptation in terms of the emissions accounting methodologies they use, their links to existing city-level international emission standards, and the consistency of those methods used by cities to improve the quality of emissions standards. Normative case study method was applied to explore these issues in three different case cities: Helsinki (Finland), Stockholm (Sweden), and Copenhagen (Denmark). The current calculation methods used in these cities exclude many indirect emissions, and these cities have not adopted consumption-based emissions. Cities also face several dilemmas in system boundaries and baseline year setting, emissions factors calculations, and data collection methods using current calculation methods. All three case cities have adopted amendable emissions accounting systems which exclude certain amounts of emissions from several sectors. Therefore, emission calculation methods must be improved to include all possible sectors and to produce more robust and transparent calculation methods.

Helium-mediated Synthesis, Soft-Landing and Spectroscopy of Metal Nanoparticles on Surfaces, CSIC. Madrid, 10-11 de Octubre de 2014., As a prototypical dispersion-dominated physisorption problem, we analyze the performance of dispersionless and dispersion-accounting methodologies on the helium interaction with cluster models of the TiO2(110) surface [1]. A special focus is given to the dispersionless density functional dlDF and the dlDF+Das construction for the total interaction energy [2], where Das is an effective interatomic pairwise functional form for the dispersion. Likewise, the performance of symmetry-adapted perturbation theory (SAPT) is evaluated, where the interacting monomers are described by density functional theory (DFT) with the dlDF, PBE, and PBE0 functionals. Moreover, intra- and intermonomer correlation contributions to the physisorption interaction are analyzed through the method of increments [3] at the CCSD(T) level of theory. This method is further applied in conjunction with a partitioning of the Hartree¿Fock interaction energy to estimate individual interaction energy components, comparing them with those obtained using the different SAPT(DFT) approaches. The cluster size evolution of dispersionless and dispersion accounting energy components reveals the reduced role of the dispersionless interaction and intramonomer correlation when the extended nature of the surface is better accounted for. On the contrary, both post-Hartree¿Fock and SAPT(DFT) results clearly demonstrate the hightransferability character of the effective pairwise dispersion interaction whatever the cluster model is. Our contribution also illustrates how the method of increments can be used as a valuable tool not only to achieve the accuracy of CCSD(T) calculations using large cluster models but also to evaluate the performance of SAPT(DFT) methods for the physically well defined contributions to the total interaction energy. Overall, our work indicates the excellent performance of a dlDF+Das approach in which the parameters are optimized using the smallest cluster model of the target surface to treat van der Waals adsorbate¿surface interactions. Very recently, this treatment has been improved through a periodic dlDF+incremental Das approach [4].

En aquest treball estudiem si el valor intrínsec de Tubacex entre 1994-2013 coincideix amb la seva tendència bursàtil a llarg termini, tenint en compte part de la teoria defensada per Shiller. També verifiquem la possible infravaloració de l’acció de Tubacex a 31/12/13. A la primera part expliquem els principals mètodes de valoració d’empreses y a la segona part fem una anàlisi del sector en el que opera Tubacex (acer inoxidable) i calculem el valor de l’acció de Tubacex per mitjà de tres mètodes de valoració (Free Cash Flow, Cash Flow i Valor en Llibres). Apliquem aquests tres mètodes de valoració per verificar si com a mínim algun d’ells coincideix amb la tendència bursàtil a llarg termini.

Traditional accounting procedures, such as generally accepted accounting principles in the United States, do not adequately capture the valuation issues of "New Economy" companies. Wide-ranging suggestions have been made to allow current accounting practices to incorporate the New Economy characteristics of uncertainty and flexibility, and one of the possible remedies is to use real option analysis.

This two-part paper presents 25 different methods and techniques used to evaluate the economic desirability of projects. We categorized these 25 methods into 5 types: net present value methods, rate of return methods, ratio methods, payback methods, and accounting methods. We provide insight into the advantages and limitations of these project evaluation methods by comparing and contrasting them. Many examples are included to illustrate the use of these methods. In Part 1, we examine net present value and rate of return methods. In Part 2, we examine ratio, payback, and accounting methods. A recap, comparison, and full summary of all 25 methods is included at the end of Part 2.

Response to comments by Gurney et al. regarding “Carbon dioxide emission tallies for 210 U.S. coal-fired power plants: A comparison of two accounting methods”

This paper attempts to find an explanation of why empirical evidence does not confirm the signalling hypothesis that income- increasing accounting methods, such as linear depreciation, are typically chosen by firms with positive inside information. First, specific characteristics of the legal environment are required, as signalling by an income-increasing accounting method is only possible when the increase in the tax rate and the taxes paid is larger for the unsuccessful firm. Moreover, fiscal law may only offer the discrete choice between linear and accelerated depreciation and a certain method is only allowed for tax purposes when it is also recorded in the financial statements. Because the number of signalling levels offered by the law is limited, signalling by the choice of an income- increasing accounting method can only occur in industries where accelerated depreciation is the value-maximizing choice for all types. Finally, not all firms can reveal positive inside information because contracting structures differ between firms. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Syfte: Vi har som syfte med det här examensarbetet att belysa de skillnader som uppstår när de allsvenska fotbollsklubbar kan välja mellan två metoder för att redovisa externt förvärvade spelare. Med tanke på att spelaromsättningen har en stor betydelse för klubbarnas resultat så är det av intresse att se effekten av dessa redovisningsmetoder. För att inte arbetet skulle svälla ut för mycket så har vi valt att avgränsa oss till allsvenskan, den högsta ligan i Sverige. Metod: Som metod för att samla in data till det här ämnet så ansåg vi att en kvalitativ metod skulle passa bäst. För att på så sätt kunna få en djupare inblick i hur det fungerar i verkligheten. Information kring de här två redovisningsmetoderna fick vi genom intervjuer, både via telefon och via mejlkontakt. Vi studerade också årsredovisningar från olika fotbollsklubbar i allsvenskan för att se hur de redovisade sina spelarförvärv, vilket är grunden för den empiriska delen i det här examensarbetet. Resultat & slutsats: I diskussions- och analysdelen presenteras de slutsatser vi kommit fram till. Vi kan visa att det blir skillnader i balans- och resultaträkning beroende på vilken redovisningsmetod som används. I och med skillnaden i resultaträkningen så kommer det få en inverkan på skatten som klubben ska betala. Vi kommer även fram till att jämförbarheten mellan olika klubbar kommer att bli lidande, detta blir viktiga aspekter när investerare vill investera i föreningarna. Förslag till vidareforskning: Vi tycker att problematiken med skillnaden på kraven på eget kapital i elitlicensen och i aktiebolagslagen är ett intressant ämne att forska vidare inom. Klubbar som drivs som aktiebolag kan få elitlicens men ändå kanske bli tvungna att likvideras. Uppsatsens bidrag: Uppsatsen bidrar med att belysa de olika metoderna för att redovisa externa spelarförvärv i fotbollsklubbar och att påvisa effekten av de olika metoderna. Aim: The purpose of this thesis is to highlight the differences that arise when the football clubs in the “Allsvenskan”, the highest soccer leauge in Sweden, can choose between two different methods to account their externally acquired players. Given that the turnover is an important role for the clubs performance, it is of interest to see the effect of these accounting methods. Whe have limited ourselves to the “Allsvenskan”. Method: As a method for collecting data for this project we believed that a qualitative approach would fit the best because we wanted a deeper insight into how it works in reality. Information about these two accounting methods, we got through the interviews, both by phone and by e-mail contact. We also studied the annual reports from various football clubs in the allsvenskan to see how they presented their players acquisitions, which is the basis for the empirical part of this thesis. Result & Conclusions: In the discussion and analysis section we show our conclusions that we have reached. We can show that there are differences in the balance sheet and income statement depending on wich accounting method the clubs use. And with the differences in the income statement there will also have an effect on the tax that the club pays. We will also show that the comparability between the different clubs will be suffering; this becomes important when the investor wants to invest in clubs. Suggestions for future research: We think that the problem with the difference in capital requirements of the “elitlicens” and the ”Swedish Companies Act” is an intresting topic to research further within. Clubs that operates as companies may receive the “elitlicens” but may also have to be forced to liquidate. Contribution of the thesis: The essay contributes to highlight the various methods to account for external acquisitions of players in football clubs and to demonstrate the effect of the different methods.

Partial fulfillment for award of the degree of Master of Commerce. This study examines the factors that determine the choice of multiple accounting methods (policies) in Tanzania. The study investigates managers’ decisions to choose accounting methods in a positive accounting theory perspective using panel data on 15 companies listed on the Dar es Salaarn Stock Exchange (DSE) from 2005 to 2008. Data (accounting numbers and accounting policies) were extracted from the companies’ annual reports. Possible determinants of the choice of accounting methods are identified based on the positive accounting theory, including firm size, leverage, effective tax rate, bonus plan, internal financing, corporate governance, bank loans, ownership dilution and labour force. Using regression analysis, the empirical results show that the significant factors are company size, internal financing, corporate governance and labour force. Contrary to the outcome of prior studies, the study finds that company size and internal financing are positively related with income strategy. The study proves statistically that there is a strong association between choice of accounting methods and income strategy. This study makes several contributions to the body of knowledge. First, in the 1’anzanian context, it delennines the factors which affect choice of accounting methods. Second, 16 potential factors are identified from dilTerent studies and 9 tested in one country (Tanzania). Third. the study identifies corporate governance as a new factor impinging on the choice of accounting policies. Fourth, this study shows for the first time that the use of RATIO of income increasing accounting policies to total number of accounting policies can be used as dependent variable. Finally, the study proves statistically the existence of an association between choice of accounting methods and income strategy in Tanzania. The research concludes that there are behavioural differences between managers of developed countries and their counterparts in Tanzania as a developing nation. Economic, social and political differences affect managers’ behaviour in making decisions. Although there are differences between developed and developing countries such as Tanzania, the research finds specific areas of diversion in the choice of accounting methods as company size, bonus plan and internal financing. Future researchers should use cross-sectional data, test foreign political costs, managers’ discretion, audit committee and industry. They should use natural logarithm of total sales as a measure instead of natural logarithm of total assets. Further, they need to investigate relevance of options in choosing accounting policies.

The graduation thesis is targeted at the issue of accounting methods for business combinations. The main goal of the thesis is to describe and compare tree basic accounting methods for business combinations -- purchase method, pooling of interests method and new entity method, especially in terms of the International Financial Reporting Standards and the U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles. Essential part of the thesis is dedicated to the historical development of harmonization of business combination accounting. Changes in calculation of goodwill are also included.

The life cycle inventories (LCIs) of recyclable and recycled materials can be strongly affected by how the savings from recycling are accounted. Unfortunately, most LCI methodologies do not explicitly address the important and subjective question of how to allocate inputs and outputs between primary and secondary material. This paper describes an LCI methodology that enables the analyst to explore and define the accounting rules more explicitly. Examples are developed to demonstrate the workings of the methodology and its implications for materials selection.

Many companies continue to use the FIFO or other inventory cost flow assumption even though empirical research has shown that the LIFO assumption provides significant cash flow advantages over the other methods. One potential influence on the choice of inventory method that has not been investigated in prior empirical studies is the potential effect of a firm's foreign operations. Because LIFO is not commonly used and/or permitted in most foreign countries, high levels of foreign inventory may influence the choice of inventory method for the firm's domestic inventory. The purpose of this paper is to determine if a firm's level of foreign operations influences its choice of inventory cost flow assumptions for its U.S. inventory. A probit model of inventory choice is developed using variables that have been found to differentiate LIFO and non-LIFO firms in previous studies. The results indicate firms with higher relative levels of foreign operations are more likely to use a non-LIFO inventory method for their domestic inventory than firms that are less involved in foreign markets. The results suggest that the level of foreign operations should be considered in future models of inventory choice and possibly other accounting choice models when there are differences in accounting standards since firms with significant levels of foreign operations may be influenced by these differences.

The aim of this work is to formulate the most famous creative accounting techniques in relation to selected items of financial statements, including their impact, and further to evaluate selected creative accounting models. These models are used for detection of possible manipulation in reported accounting data. The aim is also to determine their potential as well as their limitations. The thesis is divided into two parts. The first part deals with the essence of creative accounting. The second part provides an analysis of selected items of financial statements in relation to the creative accounting practices. The thesis also includes a case study that addresses the issue of the identification of manipulated financial statements. Financial statements are an important source of information. When the data contained in them are modified, they supply inaccurate and false information. Then this fact may have a significant impact on users´ decision.

When conducting the research, two main hypothesises were set up: H1: The majority of Croatian production companies are using traditional accounting methods for cost allocation. H2: Direct production costs are taking the highest portion in production cost structure in the majority of Croatian production companies. Because of such production cost structure, modern cost allocation accounting methods wouldn’t contribute to more reliable company profitability evaluation and business decision making. The research is conducted on the basis of defined sample which include all important Croatian public production companies. Cost allocation process is not an easy, but rather difficult and complicated procedure which requires the appliance of appropriate accounting methods. The process of allocating costs to cost objects is enforced through the application of certain accounting methods. These accounting methods often cannot provide fair and objective cost allocation, because these methods are based on certain cost allocation bases which are arbitrary and not always appropriate for reliable cost allocation.

Straipsnyje pristatomi keturi valdymo apskaitos raidos etapai, jų teoriniai bruožai. Išanalizuota valdymo apskaitos teikiamos informacijos sudėtingumo sąvoka ir jos reikšmė valdymo procese. Valdymo apskaitos informacijos sudėtingumo sąvoka siejama su valdymo apskaitos raidos etapais, nes tokiu būdu siekiama pagrįstai, pagal raidos etapą, nustatyti naudojami/ valdymo apskaitos metodų pažangumo lygmenį įmonėje. Be to, siekiama nustatyti išorinių ir vidinių įmonės aplinkos veiksnių poveikį, paaiškinantį valdymo apskaitos metodų pasirinkimo įvairovę. Valdymo apskaitos metodų įvairovės pasirinkimo problema analizuojama pasitelkus IFAC evoliucijos modelio ir neapibrėžtųjų atvejų teorijos principus. Tyrimas atliktas remiantis anketinės apklausos metodu. Tyrimo rezultatai atskleidė, jog Lietuvos įmonės savo veikloje naudoja paprastus ir tradicinius valdymo apskaitos metodus. Šių metodų naudojimas būdingas pirmojo ir antrojo valdymo apskaitos raidos etapo bruožams. Didžiausią įtaką sudėtingesnių metodų pasirinkimui turi įmonės išorinė aplinka, dydis, pirkėjų perkamoji galia, decentralizacija. It is crucial to investigate the current position of management accounting practices in highly volatile business environment because it helps the enterprise to achieve its goals. This article deals with the research of the complexity and development of management accounting methods in Lithuanian companies. The research includes small and medium individual enterprises and private companies in Lithuania. The results obtained by means of a relatively large scale questionnaire survey indicate that companies tend to choose more complex management accounting methods according to several factors: environmental uncertainty, customer power, decentralization and size of a company It has been also pointed out that companies ground their activities on financial measures, e.g. budgeting for planning and controlling costs, product profitability analysis, financial performance measures, etc. Finally, the conclusion may be drawn that traditional management accounting methods are still widely applied in Lithuanian manufacturing companies. These peculiarities are typical of the first and the second stage of the IFAC model.

Etienne van Geyt set up a research project using data from Belgian industrial firms to explore the relationship between cost accounting methods used by these firms and certain characteristics of the firms like cost structure, fluctuating sales and extent of production capacity used. His research results, which are statistically significant, indicate that for Belgian firms, those using variable costing for internal reporting have more greatly fluctuating production and sales, a lower percentage of fixed production costs to total production costs and a greater homogeneity of the production process than firms employing full-cost accounting methods.

The thesis try to answer the question if it is possible to influence the tax base of corporation income tax by different accounting methods, and thus the final tax liability. The opening theoretical chapters deal with the relationship between accounting and taxation. Following chapters analyse parts of accounting and try to find accounting cases, which would confirm the claim. At the end of each chapter is placed the example which clearly demonstrate the idea written above.

The aim of my bachelor thesis is The comparison of accounting methods of leasing under CAS (Czech Accounting Standards) and IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standards) in entity. The comparison is based on financial statements under IFRS and the CAS by the lessee, because here are basic differences. In CAS has a lessor an asset in statement and he depreciates it. In IFRS has a Lesbe because he takes the the economic benefits from an asset. In CAS must be used accruals in order to payments are in the correct and subject period. The basic part in IFRS is the present value of payments. Payment is allocated to amortization, which reduces fee and interest. IFRS shows actual amount of payments. CAS uses only one amount over the lease. Therefore, I think that IFRS in this view matches more closely the reality.

In this article the model of TCO a software product for automation tax accounting is developed, the methodical and instrumental providing of calculations the total cost of ownership the information system of tax accounting is offered, the estimation the total cost of ownership the information system «Tax Accounting» is conducted.

The objective of this study is to assess the extent to which previously documented cross-sectional differences in stock market responses to earnings announcements are associated with firms' in-place voluntary accounting method choices. The possibility that managers may manage reported earnings via the choice of accounting policies provides a motivation for the study. Some conjectures about differences in “noise” in earnings signals generated under alternative accounting methods are developed and tested by estimating firm-specific earnings response coefficients. Both individual method choices (e.g., LIFO versus FIFO) and accounting method portfolios (conservative versus liberal sets of depreciation, inventory, and investment tax credit accounting alternatives) are examined. Overall there is little empirical support for the proposition that voluntary accounting method choices have a pervasive first-order effect on stock market reactions to earnings announcements.

This thesis is divided up into two sections. The theory section deals with the allowance organization charactersitics, financing and economic specifics, accounting methods and with the topic of creation and use of obligatory funds. At the very beginning of the second section, the practice section, the National Institute of Technical and Vocational Education is introduced, the subject of its activities and a description of its accounting methods. The focus throughout the practice section is on analysis of economic and complementary activities of this Institute in 2002-2007.