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The present study aimed to test the validity of Balanites aegyptiaca remedies used for the treatment of rheumatisms and mental disorders by examining the antioxidant, xanthine oxidase and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activities of galls and leaves extracts and fractions. The total phenolics and flavonoids were measured using Folin-Ciocalteu and AlCl3 reagents, respectively. Two methods i.e., FRAP and ABTS were used to estimate the total antioxidant capacity of the plant materials. The FRAP and ABTS antioxidant activities showed that among all extracts and fractions tested, the best antioxidant activities were found with the galls dichloromethane and the leaves ethyl acetate fractions. The antioxidant activities did correlated significantly with the total phenolic and flavonoid contents. The study also showed that B. aegyptiaca galls and leaves fractions exhibited a moderate xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity comparatively to the acetylcholinesterase which was weakly inhibited by the tested extracts and fractions.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Balanites aegyptiaca (Balantiaceae), mainly the fruit, is used by traditional healers and herbalists for treating many diseases in Africa and Asia. Aim of the study Investigation of fixed oil composition of fruits and evaluation of its biological activity. Materials and methods Oil content was identified using GC and GC/MS. In vitro examination of the oil biological activity (including cytotoxicity, antimutagenicity, antiparasitic, antiviral and antimicrobial activities) was performed. Results The oil contained 54.53% unsaturated fatty acids and 1.14% sterols. The oil exhibited anticancer activity against lung, liver and brain human carcinoma cell lines. It also had antimutagenic activity against Fasciola gigantica induced mutagenicity besides anthelmintic activity against hepatic worms ( Schistosoma mansoni and Fasciola gigantica ). Preliminary screening showed that the oil had antiviral activity against Herpes simplex virus. It also had antimicrobial activity against selected strains of Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria and Candida . Conclusion The results showed remarkable biological activity of Balanites aegyptiaca fixed oil and proved its importance as natural bioactive source.

The structures of three potent molluscicides balanitin-1, -2 and -3 which were isolated from the East African tree Balanites aegyptiaca have deen determined to be 1, 2 and 3, respectively.

Medicinal plants are an important element of the health system of both human and animals in many counties. This is particularly the case in Ethiopia, one of the ancient nations located in the Horn of Africa. Floristically the country is rich with more than 6500 vascular plant species. For this reason, there has been ongoing and increasing interest in ethnobotanical studies. The aim of this study was to compile a comprehensive document on the medicinal tree species of the country. Accordingly, 65 published articles and MSc theses from 2001 to 2017 were collected and data on plant part used, preparation methods, ailments and route of administration, were summarized. A total of 274 tree species belonging to 174 genera and 69 families were identified as medicinal plants in the literature. The most dominant families were Fabaceae (51 species), Euphorbiaceae (15 species), Capparidaceae (14 species), Rubiaceae (12 species) and Anacardiaceae (12 species). Most of these species were located in Oromia and Southern Nations, Nationalities and People Regions. Large numbers of tree species were categorized to treat single rather than multiple types of ailments. Leaves were the most frequently used plant parts. Most of the remedies were prepared by crushing and administered orally. The most commonly used species include Croton macrostachyus, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Balanites aegyptiaca, Brucea antidysenteria and Cordia africana. The largest number of taxa was used to treat parasites, abdominal pain, and dermatological problems. This review, therefore, sheds some light on the important medicinal tree species of Ethiopia, focusing on tree species and their local uses in the healthcare system. It also shows the need for carrying out such studies in the remaining districts of the country, to document and promote conservation and propagation of these indigenous and exotic medicinal tree species. In addition, it indicates the need to work on the validation of phytochemical and pharmacological properties of the relatively more important tree species traditionally associated with treating major health problems.

Nowadays, parasitic worm infection is one of the most critical global health problems. Worm infections cause severe detriments to the livestock industry and also it can cause irreparable damages to immunocompromised persons. Therefore, the present study aimed to review conducted research on the treatment of worm diseases using medicinal plants’ extract. In this systematic review, seven databases including 4 English (Scopus, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar) and 3 Persian databases (Magiran, ISC, SID) were obtained between 2008 and 2020 to evaluate conducted studies related to the aim of the current review. Most of the studies focused on the Balanites aegyptiaca and Carica papaya plant. Water was the most common solvent (38.1%) and then it was methanol. The most studied parasite was Haemonchus contortus (35.5%), followed by Aacharidia galli (10.5%). Studies showed that plant extracts could reduce effect of worm infections in the host compared to synthetic drugs. Plant extracts can produce a medicine based on natural compounds and effective on worms with fewer side effects than synthetic drugs.

Asthma is a common disease that is rising in prevalence worldwide with the highest prevalence in industrialized countries. Asthma affects about 300 million people worldwide and it has been estimated that a further 100 million will be affected by 2025. Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Folk (Tribal) medicines are the major systems of indigenous medicines. Over three-quarters of the world population relies mainly on plants and plant extracts for health care. Unlike many diseases, which can be attributed to the life style of modern man, asthma is an ancient illness. There are number of medicinal plants have been reported for antihistaminic/anti-asthmatic activities like Achyranthes aspera, Tephrosia purpurea, Dolichos lablab, Eclipta alba, Jasminum sambac, Balanites aegyptiaca, Viscum album, Tridex procumbens, Glycyrrhiza glabra and Cassia fistula. Present review is focused on used of medicinal plants for treatment of asthama. It is suggested that formulation and patent of the reported medicinal plants is mandatory for further use against asthma and if possible, clinical trials should be done of these plants for their appropriate use. Keywords: Medicinal plants, Asthma, Mast cells, Antihistaminic.

Background The Afar people inhabit the sub-arid and arid part of Ethiopia. Recurrent drought and invasive encroaching plants are taking out plants that have cultural importance, and threaten the biodiversity and the associated traditional knowledge. Thus, the aim of the current study is to conduct an ethnobotanical survey and document medicinal and edible plants in Yalo Woreda in Afar regional state. Methods A cross-sectional ethnobotanical study was carried out in eight kebeles of Yalo Woreda from October 2015 to December 2016. One hundred sixty informants were selected using purposive sampling. The data on diseases, medicinal and edible plants were collected using semi-structure interview and group discussion. The statistical methods, informant consensus factor, fidelity level, and preference ranking were conducted to analyze the data. Results One hundred and six plants were reported; gender and age differences had implication on the number of plants reported by informants. The knowledge of medicinal plants among informants of each kebele was not different (p < 0.5) and was not associated in particular with the religious establishment in the kebeles (informant*kebeles, Eta square = 0.19). Family Fabaceae was the major plant species, and shrubs (44%) were dominant plants reported. Leaf (52.94%) and oral (68%) were primary plant part used for remedy preparation and route of application, respectively. The plants with low fidelity values Indigofera articulata (0.25), Cadaba farinosa (0.22), Cadaba rotundifolia (0.19), and Acalypha fruticosa (0.15) were used to treat the category of diseases with high informant consensus value (0.69). Sixteen edible plants were identified that were consumed during wet and dry seasons. Balanites aegyptiaca, Balanites rotundifolia, and Dobera glabra were ‘famine food’ that were collected and stored for years. Conclusion People in Yalo Woreda are more dependent on natural resources of the area for their livelihood. The threat of climatic change and encroaching invasive plants on medicinal and edible plants affects the traditional use of plants in the Yalo Woreda. The conservation of the plants in the home garden and natural habitat and integration of edible plants into agroforestry development programs in sub-arid and arid regions has to be encouraged to conserve plants of medical and economic importance. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13002-017-0166-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

An ethnobotanical study was conducted in East Hararghe, Ethiopia to identify and investigate the use of various plants by the traditional healers and communities engaged in domestic, pesticide and medicinal use. A total of 78 species were observed to be used by the local inhabitants in the region for the treatments of various ailments. Out of these, herbs constitute 49% followed by trees (36%) and shrubs only 15%. However, most frequently used plant parts were leaf and aerial parts (20) followed by seed (13), fruit (12), other parts (10), rhizome (7) and bark (1). Most of the plants were found to be used for medicinal, aromatic and food flavouring (spices, condiments) purposes. Out of 78 species recorded in the present study, 11 were reported to cure stomachache, seven for cold, cough and respiratory problem, six for diarrhoea and five species were found capable of curing fever. Fabaceae was the largest family contributing to medicinal plant use with seven species followed by Solanaceae, Myrtaceae, (5 spp.), and Zingiberaceae, Asteraceae, Liliaceae (4 spp. each). Some of the important plants utilized for taking care of variety of ailments are Azadirachta indica, Brassica nigra, Balanites aegyptiaca, Maytenus ovatus, Rosmarinus officinalis and Trigonella foenum graecum. Most of these medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) play a significant role in the household economy and were observed to be very popular among the people. Unpopular plants were left out of the study. This study provides useful and basic information on usage of different plants for conducting further studies aimed at conservation and documentation of traditional medicine system and economic welfare of rural peoples of the East Hararghe, Ethiopia. It also revealed that indigenous practices contributed to sustainable management of plants.

Context: Gastrointestinal tract, a part of thehumandigestive system, is an important organ that is vulnerable to different disorders contributing substantially to morbidity and mortality rates worldwide, including in Niger. The majority of the people in Niger still use local medicinal plants to treat these ailments. This study aimed at reviewing the past and actual knowledge about the medicinal plants used to treat gastrointestinal disorders by Nigerien people of different provinces. Evidence Acquisition: Relevant data about the plant species used to treat gastrointestinal tract disorders were extracted from different studies and reports of the past and current ethnobotanical surveys conducted in Niger for a comprehensive review and a national scale analysis of their use. A statistical approach was used to determine the relative importance index in order to rank all species according to their usefulness. Results: A total of 140 plant species belonging to 50 families were recorded as being used by the Nigerien population to treat gastrointestinal disorders. Combretaceae (16/50), Mimosaceae (14/50), Caesalpiniaceae (13/50), and Fabaceae (12/50) were the botanical families with the most used species. In this review, Lannea acida, Acacia nilotica, Balanites aegyptiaca, Bauhinia rufescens, Boswellia dalzielli, Combretum micranthum, and Ziziphus mauritiana were ranked as the most cited plants. Phytochemical analyses of the plant extracts revealed the presence of tannins, terpenoids, steroids, and alkaloids in most of the plant species. Conclusions: The review and analysis of the medicinal plants reported through several ethnomedicinal surveys conducted in Niger have permitted to precisely provide substantial detailsonthe medicinal use of certain plants best to treat gastrointestinal disorders. These baseline comprehensive data could certainly attract most investigators to initiate further research that might lead to the development of new lead-drugs for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders.

Background : Plants are frequently used by traditional healer for the care of the hepatic pathologies. Objective : This study is part of the valorization of the hepatoprotective potential of some plants used in traditional medicine for the care of hepatitis in the Hauts-Bassins region of Burkina Faso. Materials and methods : A survey realized in this region allowed retaining 5 species, after the classification according to the frequency of quotation and the bibliographic review, among the 44 species recorded: Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr (Combretaceae), Balanites aegyptiaca Delie. (Balanitaceae), Cassia alata L. (Ceasalpiniaceae), Opilia celtidifolia (Guill. & Perr.) Endl. (Opiliaceae) and Ziziphus mauritiana L. (Rhamnaceae). The content in phenolic compounds of the aqueous extracts of these plants was determined. Their antioxidant activity was evaluated by two methods: discoloration of radical cation ABTS and iron reduction (FRAP). Results : Anogeissus leiocarpus and Ziziphu smauritiana gave the strongest antioxidant activities and high phenolic compounds (total phenolics, total flavonoids, total tannins and flavonols). The antioxidant activity (FRAP, ABTS) was associated with the total phenolic content of the extracts expressed in tannic acid equivalent per 100 grams of dry matter with R 2 of 0.8148 and 0.7966. Conclusion : The antioxidant activity and the content phenolic compounds observed during this study with Anogeissus leiocarpus and Ziziphus mauritiana indicates that these two plants have a high hepato protective potential which can justify their use by the Traditional healer in the care of hepatitis.

Ethnopharmacological relevance The present study provides significant ethnopharmacological information on plant species used in North Kordofan region, western Sudan. The study was undertaken with an aim to document the medicinal uses of the species known to some Northern Kordofan communities. Material and methods The study was conducted between 2012 and 2013. The plants were identified and voucher specimens prepared. Information was collected by means of semi-structured interviews with 258 informants (195 men and 63 women). In addition, the use value (UV) of the species was determined and the informant consensus factor (ICF) was calculated for the medicinal plants researched in the study. Further analysis was carried out to compare results with previous studies from the study area and other regions of Sudan. Results A total of 44 plant species representing 24 families were found to be commonly used in the treatment of 73 different human health problems. The families most represented were Leguminosae (18%), Caesalpiniaceae (9%), Malvaceae (9%), Asclepiadaceae (6.8%) and Combretaceae (6.8%). The highest number of plant species are used against digestive system disorders (23 species) followed by microbial infections (21 species) and dermatology (19 species). Among all the plant parts leaves (20%), roots (19%), fruits and bark (14% each) were the most preferred plant parts used by the informants. There was strong agreement among the informants as to the usages of the plants (informant consensus factor 0.63–0.93). The most important plants on the basis of use-value were Acacia nilotica, Acacia seyal, Balanites aegyptiaca, Cassia occidentalis, Cassia senna, Guiera senegalensis and Tamarindus indica. Conclusion This study has helped to document information that may otherwise be lost to future generations. This is the first ethnobotanical study in which statistical calculations about plants are carried out by means of the ICF and UV methods in the study area. Plants with high ICF and UV values should be subjected for further phytochemical and pharmacological investigation for scientific validation.

Many Egyptian plants are known to be of potential medicinal value and are used in herbal medicine. Seven of the most important medicinal plants in the literature on Egyptian traditional and popular medicine are ‘Halfa barr’ ( Cympobogon proximus ), ‘Salam’ ( Acacia ehrenbergiana ), ‘Kharaaz’ ( Acacia albida ), ‘Ghalqa’ ( Pergularia tomentosa ), ‘Argel’ ( Solenostemma arghel ), ‘Hegleeg’ ( Balanites aegyptiaca ) and ‘Handal’ ( Citrullus colocynthis ). These seven plants and the soils in which they were growing were analysed for minor (Zn, Cu, Se, Mn and Fe) and major elements (K, Na, Ca, Mg), among which selenium ranging from 0.058 to 0.600 (mg kg −1 ) was found to be present at trace levels in all the plants studied. The highest concentration was that of zinc, ranging from 15.4 to 73.7 (mg kg −1 ). Although some plants were found to accumulate elements, their contents are still below the international safety limits for both human and animal consumption.

Ethanolic extracts of 23 medicinal plants, commonly used in Sudanese folk medicines against infectious diseases, were investigated for their immunomodulating activity using luminol/lucigenin-based chemiluminescence assay. Preliminary screenings on whole blood oxidative burst activity showed inhibitory activities of 14 plant extracts, while only one plant, Balanites aegyptiaca fruits exhibited a proinflammatory activity. Further investigation was conducted by monitoring their effects on oxidative burst of isolated polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs) and mononuclear cells (MNCs) by using two different phagocytosis activators (serum opsonizing zymosan-A and PMA). Results obtained showed that the fruits and barks of Acacia nilotica, and leaves and barks of Khaya senegalensis, possess average inhibitory effects in the range of 70.7, 67.1, 69.5 and 67.4% on both types of phagocytes (PMNs and MNCs), respectively, at a 6.25 microg/mL concentration. Moderate inhibitory activity (52.2%) was exerted by the aerial parts of Xanthium brasilicum, while the rest of the plants showed only a weak inhibitory activity. The inhibition of oxidative burst activity was found to be irreversible in most of the extracts, except for Peganum harmala, Tephrosia apollinea, Tinospora bakis, and Vernonia amygdalina. Interestingly, the fruits of Balanites aegyptiaca exhibited a moderate proinflammatory effect (37-40.4% increases in ROS level compared to the control) at 25-100 microg/mL concentration in the case of whole blood along with PMNs phagocyte activity. The Tinospora bakis extract showed proinflammatory response at a low concentration (6.25 microg/mL) during activation with PMA. None of these extracts affected PMNs viability (90-98%) upon 2 h incubation, except of the ethanolic extracts of Acacia nilotica fruits and Balanites aegyptiaca barks.

Background Candida albicans has become resistant to the already limited, toxic and expensive anti-Candida agents available in the market. These factors necessitate the search for new anti-fungal agents. Methods Sixty-three plant extracts, from 56 Tanzanian plant species obtained through the literature and interviews with traditional healers, were evaluated for anti-Candida activity. Aqueous methanolic extracts were screened for anti-Candida activity by bioautography agar overlay method, using a standard strain of Candida albicans (ATCC 90028). Results Twenty- seven (48%) out of the 56 plants were found to be active. Extracts of the root barks of Albizia anthelmintica and Balanites aegyptiaca, and roots of Plectranthus barbatus showed strong activity. Conclusion The extracts that showed strong anti-Candida activity are worth of further investigation in order to isolate and identify the active compounds.

The anthelmintic activity of aqueous extracts (0.25 mg/mL) from 14 plant species that represent seven families of the Sudanese flora was examined using the free living rhavditid nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans as a test organism. Extracts of Balanites aegyptiaca and Sesbania sesban were the most effective (LC 50 , 0.8 an,d 8.0 mg/mL, respectively). Extracts of Albizzia anthelmintica, Cympopogen narvatus, Abrus precatorius, Rhyncosia minima, Striga hermonthica and Anogeissus leiocarpa (LC 50 , 9.5-84.6 mg/ml were less effective in this model test system. Extracts of six plant species, Albizzia malacophylla, Gardenia lutea, Physostigma mesoponticum, Salvadora persica, Xeromphis nilotica and Waltheria indica had no effect upon C. elegans survival

Two rural settled Fulani villages, northeastern Nigeria, were surveyed for dietary practices and use of edible wild plants (n = 100 households). Commonly consumed species of edible wild barks, fruits, leaves, nuts, seeds, and tubers were analyzed for protein, fat, and carbohydrate and for minerals. Kuka bark (Adansonia digitata) given to infants to increase weight gain was high in fat, calcium, copper, iron, and zinc. Cediya (Ficus thonningii), dorowa (Parkia biglobosa) and zogale (Moringa oleifera) were good sources of protein and fat and excellent sources of calcium and iron or copper and zinc. Fruits, leaves, and nuts of aduwa (Balanites aegyptiaca) were widely used during the dry season and during drought. Edible wild species available during the wet season generally were inferior in energy and micronutrient mineral content compared to dry season plants. Fruits commonly eaten by children were poor sources of protein and minerals but rich in carbohydrate and fiber. Tsamiya seeds (Tamarindus indica) were good sources of zinc and used to make dawwa (porridge) commonly consumed during pregnancy. Kirya seeds (Prosopos africana) contained the highest zinc concentrations. Shiwaka leaves (Veronia colorate) consumed by pregnant women to increase breastmilk production and to expel intestinal worms, were high in fiber, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, and were adequate sources of calcium.

A preliminary examination of the crude methanol extracts of eight plant species collected from Sudan, revealed that only three plant species had a considerable in vitro antileishmanial activity on Leishmania major promastigotes at a concentration

A study on the ethno-veterinary usage of wild medicinal plants of Greater Cholistan desert of Pakistan was conducted from January, 2007 to December, 2008. Information regarding 35 plant species was collected. According to the results, Blepharis sindica was used as galactagogue. Butea monosperma, Calotropis procera and Phyllanthus nirurii were used as emollient, demulcent and antiphlogistic. Amaranthus trilocular, Capparis decidua, Clerodendron phlomoides, Phyllanthus nirurii and Ricinus communis were used as carminative and stomachic. Capparis decidua and Calotropis procera were used as appetizer. Prosopis glandulosa had anodyne properties, Achyranthes aspera had antilithic, while Pedalium murex, Tribulus terrestris and Barleria prionites had diuretic value. Achyranthes aspera, Argemone mexicana, Balanites aegyptiaca, Butea monosperma, Cassia senna, Citrullus colocynthis and Vitex negundo were used as vermifuge. Alhagi camelorum and Balanites aegyptiaca had aperient properties. Barleria prionites and Mollugo nudicaulis had their role in the ripening of an abscess. Ricinus communis and Salvadora oleoides aided in the removal of placenta and lochia. Anamitra cocculus and Argemone mexicana were used as febrifuge. Aerva javanica, Ailanthus excelsa, Amaranthus trilocular, Capparis decidua were used in diarrhoea and dysentery. Argemone mexicana and Ailanthus excelsa were used in ague.

RESUMEN La hepatotoxicidad es el principal efecto secundario que provoca el metotrexato, fármaco muy utilizado para tratar enfermedades autoinmunes, tumores malignos, cáncer, psoriasis, asma, artritis reumatoide (AR), lupus, embarazo ectópico, leucemia y otros padecimientos. En los últimos años se están realizando investigaciones in vivo enfocadas a la búsqueda de agentes hepatoprotectores que ayuden a disminuir el daño causado por este fármaco. Este trabajo está enfocado a describir el efecto hepatoprotector de algunos compuestos sintéticos y naturales (carvacrol, floridzina, berberina, pentoxifilina, ácido clorogénico, ácido gálico, resveratrol, licopeno, carvacrol, ácido alfa lipoico, ozono y melatonina); así como los extractos orgánicos de plantas medicinales (Curcuma longa, Sphaeralcea angustifolia, Balanites aegyptica, Morus nigra, Spinacea oleracea y el propóleo) que previenen y/o protegen al hígado del daño causado por el metotrexato. La mayoría de estas evaluaciones han sido realizados en modelos in vivo, empleando ratas principalmente. ABSTRACT Hepatotoxicity is the main side effect caused by methotrexate, a drug widely used to treat autoimmune diseases, malignant tumors, cancer, psoriasis, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), lupus, ectopic pregnancy, leukemia and for other diseases. In recent years, in vivo research has been carried out focused on the search for hepatoprotective agents that help reduce the damage caused by this drug. This review is focused on describing the hepatoprotective effect of some synthetic and natural compounds (carvacrol, floridzine, berberine, pentoxifylline, chlorogenic acid, gallic acid, resveratrol, lycopene, carvacrol, alpha lipoic acid, ozone and melatonin); as well as organic extracts from medicinal plants (Curcuma longa, Sphaeralcea angustifolia, Balanites aegyptica, Morus nigra, Spinacea oleracea and propolis) that prevent and/or protect the liver from damage caused by methotrexate. Most of these evaluations have been carried out in in vivo models, mainly using rats., {"references":["Khalifa MMA, Bakr AG, Osman AT. Protective effects of phloridzin against methotrexate-induced liver toxicity in rats. Biomed Pharmacother. 2017; 95: 529-35. DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2017.08.121","Hernández-Collazo AA, Rodríguez-Mena AC, Ferrusco-Ontiveros MR, Poletti-Vázquez ED. Estomatitis por metotrexato y sus efectos orales a bajas dosis. Dermatol Rev Mex. 2014; 58(5): 458-64. 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Background In Ethiopia, traditional medicine based mainly on medicinal plants, has been used for centuries for the treatment of human and animal health problems. The objective of this study was to document medicinal plants used to treat human and domestic animals ailments as well as the associate indigenous knowledge and conservation methods in Raya Alamata District in Northern Ethiopia. Methods Ethno-botanical data were collected through semi-structured interviews, guided field walks, group discussions, field observations, preference ranking, paired comparison and direct matrix. The data were analyzed by descriptive statistics, informant consensus factor, and various ranking methods. Results The results showed 47 medicinal plant species belonging to 44 genera and 31 families. The plants were used to treat 27 human and 8 livestock diseases. Among others, members of Fabaceae were leading in terms of the number of medicinal plant species composition, consisting of 9 species. Of these species, the majority (53.19%) grew naturally in the wild. Herbs took the lead in terms of the number of plants used in the preparation of remedies, constituting 46.81% of the species, followed by shrubs that instituted 27.66%. Leaves were the most commonly used plant part, constituting 41.94% of the total uses, followed by roots, constituting 20.97%. Dermal route of administration was the most commonly used route of administration (43.55%), followed by oral route of administration (38.71%). Direct matrix ranking showed Balanites aegyptiaca L. as the most preferred multipurpose species in the community. Paired ranking indicated that Aloe megalacantha Bak. as the most commonly used medicinal plants for healing external wounds. Agricultural activity for new agricultural lands became seriously threatened medicinal plant resources. Many of the local communities with traditional medicinal knowledge gave priority to the immediate use of medicinal plants than to the sustainable uses. Particularly, the collection method of plants or plant parts for medicinal use is mostly destructive. Conclusion local communities heavily depend on traditional medicinal plants and associated knowledge for treating human and livestock ailments. However, medicinal plants and the associated knowledge are eroding mainly due to agricultural expansion, deforestation and land degradation for seeking new agricultural lands and firewood, as well as the unsustainable practices of plant or plant part sampling for medicinal values. Thus, public awareness needs to be raised among local communities and all other stakeholders on sustainable utilization and management of medicinal plant resources and associated knowledge. On the top of that ex-situ and in-situ conservation measures in particular should be taken for the sustainable management of medicinal plants and the indigenous knowledge.

Open Access Journal For many years humans have used different parts of plants for medicinal purposes, as source of food and feed. Hence the benefits of indigenous knowledge for the development of present day sophisticated medicinal inventions cannot be overlooked. Indigenous people living in and around protected areas are still making use of plants to cure human and animal related diseases. Guji, Kore and Gamo people of Nech Sar National Park are not indifferent to this fact. Primary data were collected from these indigenous communities of the area and concerned government officers by making use of interview questions and observation. In addition to this, information was also gathered from the operational and management staff of Nech Sar National Park through semi-structured questionnaire. Then data were transcribed and analyzed by making use of descriptive statistics and content analysis. The findings of the study showed, from the vegetation of Nech Sar National Park, a total of 12 plants are being used as a medicinal remedy for humans and livestock health related problems. Croton macrostachys (for skin infection), Balanites aegyptiaca (constipation and other intestinal problems), Aleo vera (joint pains and as a deworming), Acacia mellifera (treating ringworm) and Solanum incanum (treat livestock infected with water born parasites) are among the major plants which are being used as a local remedy to treat health complications by the indigenous community. Apart from this, the different parts of these plants are also used for processing food items in the household. The research found out that the local communities have strong faith on these plants as they have been used across generations so as to combat various diseases in an indigenous way. Therefore, policy and strategic actions should consider the preservation of indigenous knowledge along with biodiversity resources as indigenous technical knowledge will continue to shape up the development efforts of the present generation.

In Sudan, some medicinal plants, such as Acacia seyal, Calotropis procera and Balanites aegyptiaca have been used to prevent or treat oral health problems. The stem and stem bark of Terminalia laxiflora Engl., Combretaceae, are used as antiseptics for mouthwash to prevent gingivitis and thrush in Africa. Methanol and 50% hydroethanolic extracts of 25 plants that are used in traditional Sudanese medicine for several diseases and cavity disorders were screened for anti-cavity activities. T. laxiflora methanolic wood extracts, which exhibited such activity, were investigated. The crude extracts were assayed for their antimicrobial activities against Streptococcus sobrinus in terms of minimum inhibitory concentration and glucosyltransferase inhibition. The active extract of T. laxiflora wood was subsequently fractionated by different chromatographic techniques. Isolated compounds were identified by spectroscopic methods and assessed for S. sobrinus and glucosyltransferase inhibitory effects. Methanolic extracts of Terminalia brownii (bark), T. laxiflora (wood), A. seyal (bark), Persicaria glabra (leaves) and Tamarix nilotica (stem) showed good activities against both S. sobrinus and glucosyltransferase (MIC ≤ 1 mg/ml, IC50 values

Chapter 1 Phytoactive compounds from in vitro derived tissues 1.1. Introduction 1.2. Phytoactive compounds and their in vitro sources of derivation Chapter 2 Bioreactors: A rapid approach for secondary metabolite production 2.1. Introduction 2.2. Bioreactor vs. chemical reactor 2.3. Conventional bioreactors 2.4. Advancement in bioreactor technology: Disposable bioreactors 2.5. A versatile miniature bioreactor: a novel bioreactor design for bio-electrochemistry studies 2.6. Conclusion and future prospects Chapter 3 Hairy Root Culture: An Efficient System for Secondary Metabolite Production 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Hairy root culture 3.3 Hairy root culture: 'Productive Vehicle' for secondary metabolites 3.4 Other applications 3.5 Problems of hairy root culture 3.6 Conclusion and future prospects Chapter 4 Elicitation: An Alternative Approach towards commercialization of Secondary Metabolite Production 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Classification of elicitors 4.3 Active mechanism of elicitation in plant cells Chapter 5 Plant Natural Products as a potential source of antimicrobial agents: an overview and a glimpse on recent developments 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Antibacterial potential in plant natural products 5.3 Antimycobacterial Potential 5.4 Antifungal potential in plant natural products 5.5 Antiparasitic potential in Plant natural products 5.6 Utility of plant-secondary metabolites (PSMs) in reversing multi-drug resistance (MDR) 5.7 Antiviral potential in plant natural products with special reference to HIV and influenza virus Chapter 6 Recent Trends in Prevention and Treatment of Dental Caries and Periodontal Disease by Natural Plant Products 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Etiology of dental caries and periodontal disease 6.3 Prevention and Treatment of dental caries and periodontal disease 6.4Treatment of dental diseases by natural plant products 6.5 Antimicrobial activity of crude plant extracts 6.6 Antimicrobial activity of purified phytochemicals 6.7 Plant extracts which inhibit the adhesion of oral bacteria 6.8 Antimicrobial activity of essential oils 6.9 Conclusions Chapter 7 Antimicrobial Activity of Plants Used In Mexico for Gastrointestinal and Respiratory Disorders 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Bioassays 7.3 Extracts obtained from Mexican plants active against Gram positive bacteria 7.4 Extracts obtained from Mexican plants active against M. tuberculosis 7.5 Extracts obtained from Mexican plants active against Gram-negative bacteria 7.6 Extracts obtained from Mexican plants active against pathogenic fungi 7.7 Active isolated compounds 7.8 Conclusion Chapter 8 Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry Pharmacological and Biotechnogical approaches of Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don 8.1. Introduction 8.2. Taxonomy, Habit and Habitat of Catharanthus roseus 8.3. Traditional uses and biological activites of C. roseus 8.4. Role of Biotechnological approaches in Catharanthus micropropagation and enhancement of pharmaceutically active compounds being used in the treatment of various diseases 8.5. Biosynthesis of alkaloids in Catharanthus 8.6. Metabolic and genetic engineering in alkaloids biosynthesis 8.7. Coupling methods for alkaloids biosynthesis 8.8. Cellular compartmentation 8.9. Conclusions Chapter 9Nutraceuticals- Recent Developments and Future Prospectives 9.1 Definition and introduction 9.2 Worldwide Status 9.3 Significance 9.4 Classification of nutraceuticals 9.5 Nutrigenomics: Strategies and future 9.6 Regulatory Status 9.7 Future Prospectives 9.8 Conclusions Chapter 10 Plant Edible Vaccines: A Revolution in Vaccination 10.1. Introduction 10.2. Concept of plant edible vaccines 10.3. Mechanism of action 10.4. Preparation of edible vaccines 10.5. Need and advantages of plant edible vaccines 10.6. Applications of plant edible vaccine 10.7. Potential issues to be addressed 10.8. Transgenic chloroplast systems 10.9. Recent developments 10.10. Conclusions Chapter 11 Malaria and Phytomedicine 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Development of Phytomedicine 11.3 Reverse Pharmacology 11.4 Currently Available Phytomedicines Against Malaria 11.5 Potential Candidates 11.6 Concluding remarks and Future trends Chapter 12 In vitro conservation protocols for some rare medicinal plant species 12.1. Introduction 12.2. Clonal multiplication of some rare medicinal plants Chapter 13 In vitro conservation protocols for some threatened medicinal-plant protocols 13.1. Introduction 13.2. Best Protocols of some threatened plants Chapter 14 In vitro conservation protocols for some endangered medicinal-plant protocols 14.1. Introduction 14.2. General methodology 14.3. Tylophora indica (Burm.f.) Merrill (Asclepiadaceae) 14.4. Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. (Balanitaceae) 14.5. Eremostachys superba Royle ex Benth. (Lamiaceae) 14.6. Tecomella undulata (Sm.) Seem. (Bignoniaceae) 14.7. Gloriosa superba Linn. (Liliaceae) 14.8. Commiphora wightii (Arnott.) Bhandari 14.9. Gentiana kurroo Royle (Gentianaceae) Chapter 15 In vitro conservation protocols for some commercially important medicinal plants. 15.1. Introduction 15.2. Materials and methods 15.3 In vitro regeneration in some selected medicinally important plant species.

ObjectiveTo investigate the antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiplasmodial, acute toxicity and haemolytic activities of methanolic extracts of three plants. Phytochemical analysis to determine the phenolic contents was also carried out.MethodsThe 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging, NCCLS broth microdilution and Plasmodium Lactate Dehydrogenase (pLDH) assays were used to determine antioxidant, antimicrobial and antiplasmodial activities, respectively. Haemolysis assay was conducted on A+ human red blood cells and acute toxicity on male Swiss albino mice. Phenolics were quantitatively determined using spectrophotometric methods.ResultsThe DPPH assay yielded interesting antioxidant activities of methanolic extract of Parinari curatellifolia (P. curatellifolia) and Entada africana (E. africana) (IC50 were 0.20±0.01 μg/mL and 0.47±0.01 μg/mL, respectively). This activity was highly correlated with phenolic contents of extracts. The antimicrobial tests displayed minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) values ranging from 0.90 to 1.80 mg/mL for Serratia marcescens (S. marcescens) the most susceptible bacterial strain. MIC value was 1.20 mg/mL for susceptible fungal strains including Mucor rouxi (M. rouxi), Fusarium oxyporum (F. oxyporum) and Rhizopus nigricans (R. nigricans). pLDH assay showed moderate antiplasmodial activity of Balanites aegyptiaca (B. aegyptiaca) (IC50 = 24.56±3.45 μg/mL), however this extract was highly haemolytic and toxic in mice (LD50 = 625±128 mg/kg).ConclusionsOur results support in part the use of the selected plants in the treatment of microbial infections. In addition the plant showed interesting antioxidant activity that could be useful in the management of oxidative stress.