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The northern Bohemian sandstone region brings an exceptionally rich record of Mesolithic settlement, particularly in the form of fireplaces as key structures to be studied when addressing cooking and consumption practices. A large number of different fireplace structures – including kettle-shaped pits and surface or sunken fireplaces, some lined with stones – can be interpreted in terms of performing roasting, boiling, steaming or smoking procedures. The organic remains directly associated with them reveal which resources were exploited and almost certainly consumed, although in many cases they seem to have been discarded into the fire after processing. A Mesolithic inland settlement of northern Bohemia was undoubtedly economically based on the exploitation of plant and animal resources occurring in varied local forest and river environments. According to the evidence, hazelnuts were a staple component of the plant diet, probably processed using roasting hearths. Some fireplaces also yielded carbonised remains of other edible plants, such as raspberry (Rubus idaeus, Rubus sp.), elderberry (Sambucus nigra), red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa) and fat hen (Chenopodium album). The faunal vertebrate assemblages suggest a broad-spectrum economy, exploiting terrestrial mammals, birds, amphibians and fish. The molluscan record suggests the exploitation of edible land snails as well as thick-shelled river mussels. Rather than assuming a simple connection between fireplace type and the resources identified, a complex set of biases is considered and discussed.

This study concerns flueless fireplaces powered by liquid or gel bioethanol based fuels. These devices have a pleasant aesthetic design and can be used in indoor environments; in particular, they do not need any connection to a stack to evacuate the flue gases. This work evaluates the polluting impact of the mentioned fireplaces, with a special focus on their odour emissions, in order to assess the environmental impact of these items and to provide the European Commission information useful to define the guidelines for a dedicated legislation. For these reasons, a series of experimental tests, structured with well-defined steps, alternating operation (combustion) and shutdown phases, was performed for several fireplaces. The concentration trends of both the main combustion products and by-products as well as the odour were monitored; furthermore, specific odour emission factors (OEFs) were calculated. The combustion pollutants were mainly released during the operation phase, while the most significant odour emissions occurred during shutdown. The average OEFs reached values between 40 and 110 [*100 ouE kJ −1 ] during the shutdown, but they were below 10 [*100 ouE kJ −1 ] during the operation periods. It was found that the extent of odour emissions depends crucially on the burner design and geometry of each fireplace; in particular, the air-fuel contact surface is the most relevant parameter. Moreover, this study proved that the electronic nose can be a valid additional instrument in activities aimed at evaluating the indoor air quality, and considering its peculiarities, the idea of using it not only as an odour detector, but also as an integrated device in air ventilation systems for indoor environments, is both interesting and achievable.

This study shows that the availability, construction, shape, size, location and decommissioning of fireplaces are determined by practical requirements and that conversely variations and changes in the construction and location of fireplaces disclose daily practices and long-term circumstances of prehistoric life. It investigates fireplaces in the central Anatolian Neolithic settlements of Boncuklu (8300–7800 cal BC) and Catalhoyuk (levels South L-S, and North G-H, 6700–6000 cal BC) exploring how far fireplaces reflect the emergence of autonomous households during the sedentarizing process. Considering the fireplace mainly under the aspects of symbolic and social significance, highlighting standardisation and continuity misses the insights that a detailed observation of variations can give. This study provides a classification of fireplace-types that can be used for the analysis of fireplaces in other sites. Collating the information on fireplaces for each site chronologically according to stratigraphy reveals that the construction and availability of fireplaces met the needs of a growing or diminishing household, where available resources, light, warmth, ventilation, accessibility, room layout, cooking methods were decisive considerations. Because in Boncuklu fireplaces were frequently located in communally accessible spaces, while in Catalhoyuk fireplaces were mainly used by individual households, this study confirms a trend over the long-term to more autonomous households that relied on their own provision for heating, light, cooking and craft manufacturing in their houses.

A significant part of the world’s population (about 40%) cooks their meals and provides heating for their homes using wood-burning heating devices. Due to the relatively low cost of fuel and their aesthetic design, solid fuel stoves capable of heat accumulation are convenient and common. The use of dedicated small-scale power generators provides also additional benefits. This paper presents the results of a study conducted to verify the possibility of generating power using stove-fireplaces with heat accumulation systems. In such units, the temperature of the flue gas should be kept at a certain level for the purposes of storing heat, which results from certain limitations of the thermoelectric generators. To verify the possibility of applying thermoelectric modules in such heating devices, a dedicated system with thermoelectric generators was selected from among various microcogeneration systems and implemented. Three types of heat exchangers were studied and the most efficient unit was selected for further testing. Two types of generators, with maximum operating temperatures of 320 and 175 °C, were compared. Subsequently, the characteristics of the latter were determined. The conducted tests allowed to determine the performance and the total efficiency of the generators that were used. It has been demonstrated that the maximum power of the generator would not exceed ca. 30 We and that there is no economic justification for such a device. However, providing a self-powered and self-sufficient operation of stove-fireplaces with heat accumulation systems remains an important goal.

Over the past few years, the number of decorative ethanol fireplaces in domestic appliances has significantly increased. This kind of fireplace, meant for domestic purposes, has different risks. The present publication highlights different risk sources investigated by experimental and numerical approaches: flash phenomena, burn injuries. The effect of such fireplaces on interior air quality was also investigated. French standards and regulations related to this type of appliances are based on this work. Fuel used in such devices is not only ethanol; it also includes a lot of compounds such as denaturants and additives. All these substances, in addition with high temperature of flame, result in forming many different gases. Numerical and experimental results highlight two families of risks: heat injuries during use or refill and effect on air quality. The first family of risks could be limited by proper use instructions such as time between refills. To address the second family of risks, it would be necessary to develop more sophisticated fireplaces, including electronic sensors, to mitigate the risks.

Pollutant characterization of domestic fireplaces, according to two paces of functioning (normal and low-charge phase) was performed. Two catalysts supported on cordierite or metal were placed in the exhaust of two domestic fireplaces (old and new generation) in order to reduce gaseous pollutants. Active phase of catalysts is composed of noble metals (Pd, Pt) and cerium. Methane was the dominant compound of the released Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC, 80% b. v.). Products resulting from incomplete combustion (CO and other VOC) did not represent more than 6% of the initial carbon content in wood. Lower concentration of CO in the exhaust was obtained with the new generation fireplace as compared to the older one with mean concentrations of CO normalized for 13% oxygen b.v. equal to 0.12% and 0.3%, respectively. Emission of VOC is also drastically reduced for new generation fireplace. The presence of a catalyst induced a decrease of the CO and VOC emission factors during ignition and low-charge phases by factors ranging from 65% to 70%. The abatement of VOC for the old generation fireplace was better in the presence of metal as compared to cordierite, with efficiency values of 65% and 30%, respectively. The new fireplace was the one on which the addition of the cleanup implements had most impact. Besides the introduction of a catalyst, a heating system of the fume was set up below the catalyst. This heating system allowed a faster activation of the catalyst, particularly during ignition and low-charge phases. Best abatements were obtained with the heated metallic support with values close to 80% and 94% for VOC and CO respectively.

Two different firewood-fueled high quality fireplaces for private homes were complemented with novel in situ gas sensors for residual oxygen and CO/HC flue gas analysis and with a catalytic converter for exhaust gas treatment. The sensitivity performance of the used CO/HC mixed-potential-type sensor is characterized. Based on these two gas sensor signals and on the combustion temperature a new general strategy for automatic control of the primary and secondary air streams for firewood combustion was developed. This enabled reduction of the (toxic) CO/HC-emissions to about 50% (central heater) and 15% (tiled stove), respectively, in comparison to the emissions measured when the firing process is controlled by the algorithm of the fireplace-producer. After implementation of a catalytic converter into the flue gas channel (central heater) and post-combustion chamber (tiled stove) and adaptation of the control algorithm parameters the CO/HC-emissions were further reduced to about 25% and less than 1%, respectively. Studies of the long-term stability of the catalyst material by temperature dependent gas conversion experiments indicated that the conversion kinetics is stabilized at an onset-temperature of about 155 °C.

Compilations of historical observations, archaeomagnetic data from ancient fireplaces and palaemagetic results from short cores of sediment from lakes in southeastern Australia, particularly Lake Keilambete, provide a detailed record of the geomagnetic secular variation during the last 3000 years. The independent sets of data are in good agreement if the radiocarbon time scale for the lacustrine record is about 450 years too old. The error is attributed to systematic incorporation of ancient carbon into the lake floor sediments, mainly through erosion of sediment on the crater walls at times of low water level. A significant lag between deposition and the acquisition of stable magnetic remanence is ruled out. Inclination has been abnormally steep during the last 500 years but remained fairly close to the axial dipole field value prior to that. During the last 1000 years the predominant sense of looping of the magnetic vector corresponds to westward drift of the nondipole field. Secular variations on a time scale of ∼ 100 years can be resolved by the lacustrine record.

Results of this study showed that the use of a radiant-type kerosene heater or a poorly-vented wood-burning fireplace resulted in substantial increases (up to 10 times background) of benzo(a)pyrene levels (on airborne particulates) in indoor environments.

Samples of bottom ash and chimney ash were collected from two wood burning stoves, one open fireplace, and from out-of-doors open-air burning. Although only untreated wood was burned, PCDD/PCDF was detected in all samples. Large differences in total PCDD/PCDF and relative congener amounts were observed between samples, although within-congener isomer patterns were very similar and in some cases resembled the patterns detected in municipal incinerator flyash. Acid treatment of the ash before extraction increased the amounts of PCDD/PCDF detected.

Highlights • We study the determinants of supplementary heating system adoption choices. • Households have positive views of hybrid generation. • House characteristics, information and location impact hybrid heating adoption. • The lack of unbiased supplementary heating systems information should be addressed. Detached house owners can improve energy efficiency in heating by adding a supplementary heating system alongside the primary mode. Whereas research on primary heating mode adoption is wide, studies focusing solely on the determinants of supplementary heating system adoption is limited. This study examines the determinants of supplementary heating system adoption and consideration in Finland with a survey data collected from a sample of newly built detached house owners. We employ discrete choice modeling to investigate the homeowners’ supplementary heating system choices and interpret the results vis-à-vis the diffusion of innovations literature. The supplementary heating systems under study are solar panel, solar thermal heater, air-source heat pump and water-circulating fireplace. Overall, the findings indicate that homeowners are generally receptive to supplementary heating in Finland. The analyses show that several factors such as age, education, primary heating mode, heating system attributes, location, environmental attitudes and information channels impact the supplementary heating system adoption decision.

Four manually fed (6–11 kW) firewood burning and two automatic wood pellets (8.8–25 kW) residential heating appliances were tested under real-world operating conditions in order to determine emission factors (EFs) of macropollutants, i.e., carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NO x ), non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), particulate matter (PM) and trace pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and dioxins. The results were examined for the influence of different factors (i.e., type of wood, appliance and combustion cycle). The experimental EFs were also compared with the values proposed by the European emission inventory guidebook used in the local inventory in order to evaluate their representativeness of real world emissions. The composite macropollutant EFs for manually fed appliances were: for CO 5858 g GJ −1 , for NO x 122 g GJ −1 , NMHC 542 g GJ −1 , PM 254 g GJ −1 , whereas emissions were much lower for automatic pellets appliances: CO 219 g GJ −1 , for NO x 66 g GJ −1 , NMHC 5 g GJ −1 , PM 85 g GJ −1 . The highest emissions were generally observed for the open fireplace, however traditional and advanced stoves have the highest overall CO EFs. Especially for the advanced stove real-world emissions are far worse than those measured under cycles used for type testing of residential solid fuel appliances. No great difference is observed for different firewood types in batch working appliances, diversely the quality of the pellets is observed to influence directly the emission performance of the automatic appliances. Benzo(b)fluoranthene is the PAH with the highest contribution (110 mg GJ −1 for manual appliances and 2 mg GJ −1 for automatic devices) followed by benzo(a)pyrene (77 mg GJ −1 for manual appliances and 0.8 mg GJ −1 for automatic devices).

In recent years, numerous building fires have occurred in Finland where the fire has started due to the ignition of flammable materials in the vicinity of metal chimney penetrations through floors, roofs and walls. Based on onsite observations and experimental studies, one possible reason for the ignition is that the actual flue gas temperatures in real use in buildings are higher than those assumed for chimney design. An experimental study has been conducted in the TUT Fire Laboratory at Tampere University of Technology to determine the actual site conditions, identify the difference between the actual site conditions and the EN standard test conditions and assess whether the differences affect the fire safety of chimney penetrations. This paper describes the results of five site tests conducted in four different residential buildings and a sauna. The results revealed that the actual use of fireplaces and site conditions may differ significantly from the test conditions of EN standards. The site tests demonstrated higher flue gas temperatures and stronger draughts than what specified for the EN standard tests. The flue gas temperatures measured onsite were 134° to 278 °C higher than the mean temperature indicated in the CE marking of the tested fireplaces. The results indicate that the flue gas temperatures given in the CE markings of fireplaces may be too low for the designing of chimneys. This may cause a fire hazard at chimney penetrations.

In this study we review the current status of residential solid fuel (RSF) use in the UK and compare it with New Zealand, which has had severe wintertime air quality issues for many years that is directly attributable to domestic wood burning in heating stoves. Results showed that RSF contributed to more than 40 μg m−3 PM10 and 10 μg m−3 BC in some suburban locations of New Zealand in 2006, with significant air quality and climate impacts. Models predict RSF consumption in New Zealand to decrease slightly from 7 PJ to 6 PJ between 1990 and 2030, whereas consumption in the UK increases by a factor of 14. Emissions are highest from heating stoves and fireplaces, and their calculated contribution to radiative forcing in the UK increases by 23% between 2010 and 2030, with black carbon accounting for more than three quarters of the total warming effect. By 2030, the residential sector accounts for 44% of total BC emissions in the UK and far exceeds emissions from the traffic sector. Finally, a unique bottom-up emissions inventory was produced for both countries using the latest national survey and census data for the year 2013/14. Fuel- and technology-specific emissions factors were compared between multiple inventories including GAINS, the IPCC, the EMEP/EEA and the NAEI. In the UK, it was found that wood consumption in stoves was within 30% of the GAINS inventory, but consumption in fireplaces was substantially higher and fossil fuel consumption is more than twice the GAINS estimate. As a result, emissions were generally a factor of 2–3 higher for biomass and 2–6 higher for coal. In New Zealand, coal and lignite consumption in stoves is within 24% of the GAINS inventory estimate, but wood consumption is more than 7 times the GAINS estimate. As a result, emissions were generally a factor of 1–2 higher for coal and several times higher for wood. The results of this study indicate that emissions from residential heating stoves and fireplaces may be underestimated in climate models. Emissions are increasing rapidly in the UK which may result in severe wintertime air quality reductions, as seen in New Zealand, and contribute to climate warming unless controls are implemented such as the Ecodesign emissions limits.

During the last years, specific air quality problems have been detected in the urban area of Porto (Portugal). Both PM10 and NO 2 limit values have been surpassed in several air quality monitoring stations and, following the European legislation requirements, Air Quality Plans were designed and implemented to reduce those levels. In this sense, measures to decrease PM10 and NO 2 emissions have been selected, these mainly related to the traffic sector, but also regarding the industrial and residential combustion sectors. The main objective of this study is to investigate the efficiency of these reduction measures with regard to the improvement of PM10 and NO 2 concentration levels over the Porto urban region using a numerical modelling tool – The Air Pollution Model (TAPM). TAPM was applied over the study region, for a simulation domain of 80 × 80 km 2 with a spatial resolution of 1 × 1 km 2 . The entire year of 2012 was simulated and set as the base year for the analysis of the impacts of the selected measures. Taking into account the main activity sectors, four main scenarios have been defined and simulated, with focus on: (1) hybrid cars; (2) a Low Emission Zone (LEZ); (3) fireplaces and (4) industry. The modelling results indicate that measures to reduce PM10 should be focused on residential combustion (fireplaces) and industrial activity and for NO 2 the strategy should be based on the traffic sector. The implementation of all the defined scenarios will allow a total maximum reduction of 4.5% on the levels of both pollutants.

Fireplaces are popular in Northern Europe. However, particle emissions from fireplaces have been identified as an environmental problem and a health problem. User behaviors affect particle emissions and the success of particle reducing technologies to a large extent. This interdisciplinary study aims to investigate why and how people use their fireplaces, including what emotions people associate with fire, and their interest in learning more about fire making and changing behavior related to fire making. It does so by applying an emotion regulation model in a novel way. In total, 146 Swedish individuals owning a fireplace (the majority had wood stoves, a few had tiled stoves, boilers or other types of fireplaces) participated in an online questionnaire about motives, behaviors, knowledge, and interest in learning and changing behavior. The most common motives for using a fireplace in this sample were complementary heating and “cozy fire making”. Our results suggest that watching a fire can aid in regulating emotions from unpleasant stress towards joy and provide a pleasant atmosphere for socialization, and that wood fuel may be a preferred complementary energy choice because it provides beautiful light, comfortable warmth, beautiful design and safety. People reporting emotional motives for using a fireplace also reported an interest in changing behavior.

International audience; A better understanding of the operation and use of prehistoric fires is fundamental to interpreting the organization of living spaces. Following a previous study that focused on the organic signatures of fireplaces fueled with wood and/or bones, this study targeted the completion of an experimental reference database through the addition of a wood-fueled fireplace dedicated to the cooking of meat. Different sedimentary features of this experimental fireplace were visually identified (e.g. darkening, reddening), sampled, and subjected to geochemical analysis. Corg and N contents were quantified, samples were extracted with organic solvents and analyzed through GC-MS and bulk organic matter was characterized through py(TMAH)-GC-MS. Five different samples were studied and compared with a control sample, representative of the local background. A significant increase of Corg and N contents was measured for the three samples presenting darkened or charred caracteristics. The meat-cooking fireplace seems to be characterized by the strong contribution of nitrogen, which was visible in elementary analyses as well as in the molecular composition of solvent extracts, and bulk organic matter. More specifically, compounds containing nitrile functions, amides, N-heterocyclic and N-aromatic compounds could be detected in solvent extracts. Amines, amides, N-heterocyclic and N-aromatic compounds could be identified in py(TMAH)-GC-MS. Some of these compounds present a relative stability in soils and could therefore aid in our comprehension and functional interpretations of archaeological fireplaces, and may, more particularly, make it possible to highlight the use of fireplaces for the cooking of meat.

At the Palaeolithic site of Krems-Wachtberg, numerous charcoal remains were excavated since 2005. They were concentrated in the living floor (layer 4.4), especially in fireplaces 1 and 2 and several pits, but also mixed into sediments above the living floor. Since 2008, VIAS dendrolab (Vienna Institute for Archaeological Science, University of Vienna) has been cooperating with the excavators to investigate these charcoal samples for wood species analysis, dendrochronological synchronization, and also to evaluate their palaeoclimatic potential. The dominant wood type is Pine, which includes the species Pinus sylvestris, Pinus mugo, and Pinus cembra/sibirica. Two other gymnospermous wood types were found among the samples. Several charcoal pieces belong to Picea abies/Larix decidua (which cannot be separated by means of wood anatomy) and a single specimen of Abies sp. was found. A single angiosperm wood remain was analysed as Fagus sylvatica. Dendrochronological investigations singled out a number of samples with very similar ring patterns, which obviously had been growing at the same time. As these clusters do not match each other, samples were either not contemporary or grew on climatologically differing places. As a result of these studies, we were able to ascertain the synchronous use of fireplaces 1 and 2 in at least one phase. The advanced methods of charcoal analysis described in this paper can be used for detecting and synchronizing settlement phases on many archaeological sites. In particular, it is possible to significantly enhance the temporal resolution achievable with 14C-ages on wood charcoal.

The use of combustion heat sources like wood-burning fireplaces has regained popularity in the past years due to increasing energy costs. While the outdoor emissions from wood ovens are strictly regulated in Germany, the indoor release of combustion products is rarely considered. Seven wood burning fireplaces were tested in private homes between November 2012 and March 2013. The indoor air quality was monitored before, during and after operation. The following parameters were measured: ultra-fine particles (5.6-560 nm), fine particles (0.3-20 μm), PM2.5, NOx, CO, CO2, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP). Most ovens were significant sources of particulate matter. In some cases, an increase of benzene and BaP concentrations was observed in the indoor air. The results illustrate that wood-burning fireplaces are potential sources of indoor air contaminants, especially ultra-fine particles. Under the aspect of lowering indoor air exchange rates and increasing the use of fuels with a net zero-carbon footprint, indoor combustion sources are an important topic for the future. With regards to consumer safety, product development and inspection should consider indoor air quality in addition to the present fire protection requirements.

Tell Seker al-Aheimar, located in the Upper Khabur, northeastern Syria, is an early Neolithic settlement that chrono-culturally spans from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) to the Proto-Hassuna period (Pottery Neolithic). The site is one of the largest and best documented Neolithic sites in this relatively poorly investigated region in Upper Mesopotamia. Among the occupation sequence of the site with well-defined architectural phases, the Late PPNB settlement (late 8th to early 7th millennium cal. BC) is characterized by an extensive mud-brick architecture, which comprises large multi-roomed rectangular buildings and gypsum-plastered floors. Our research questions center on the identification of domestic activities and their spatial distributions in the site through integrated studies of phytoliths and dung spherulites using an ethnoarchaeological approach. The ethnoarchaeological research included the study of agricultural and dung remains obtained from modern domestic structures from the top of the tell and the modern village of Seker al-Aheimar. The examined activity areas and materials comprised indoor storage and processing spaces, open areas, fireplaces, building materials and livestock enclosures. We use the ethnoarchaeological results to interpret the distributions of both phytolith and spherulite concentrations in archaeological contexts in terms of domestic activities that took place both within and outside buildings. Building spaces and their adjacent areas showed material accumulation resulting from household debris, including food remains, construction materials, matting, hearth cleaning and fuel residues. Indoor activities included the use of certain areas for storage, cereal-processing and cooking. The identification of livestock dung remains in fireplaces suggests the use of dung as a fuel source. We compare these new results with our previous studies of different phases and areas of the site to discuss diachronic and spatial trends in Neolithic household behaviors at Tell Seker al-Aheimar.

The present is a palaeobiological and taphonomic analysis of a Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 4–3 (Late Pleistocene) assemblage of animal remains and hominin artefacts from layers 7–5 of Biśnik Cave, Czestochowa Upland, Poland. The analysis indicates that the bone assemblage is the result of a time-averaged palimpsest of both biotic and episodic abiotic events, the former consisting of many successive generations of animals and hominins that frequented the cave, and the latter including hydraulic winnowing. In fact, the taphonomic history of the fossil assemblage from Biśnik Cave's layers 7–5 is partially obscured by the overprint of hydraulic winnowing, which purportedly removed a certain amount of the original specimens. Besides evidence of cave bear deaths from non-violent, hibernation-related mortality and of occupation by generations of denning wolves and hyaenas, there is a wealth of flint artefacts, alongside remains of a few fireplaces and of a structure built in the cave by hominins to partition the cave chambers. The studied layer contains an impressive number of shed antlers, primarily of the red deer Cervus elaphus. Crocuta crocuta spelaea is normally held responsible for such accumulations of shed antlers in various European caves; Biśnik Cave's layers 7–5 will therefore simply add to the list. However, the role of accumulator of shed antlers attributed to the Pleistocene spotted hyena does not match the behaviour of its modern counterpart and seems not accounted for metabolically. The only reasonable alternative is that the antlers were collected by hominins. From this alternative perspective the cave would have functioned as a warehouse, where naturally shed antlers were stored as raw material, potentially to be shaped into tools and/or employed as tools to make other tools. The palaeobiological and taphonomic analysis presented here provides new insights into the succession of pre- and postdepositional events that involved the bone remains accumulated in the cave, as well as into the interactions between the animals and hominins of the time. More importantly, if hominins, and not hyaenas, were responsible for the amassment of the shed antlers in Biśnik Cave, this study raises doubts as to the hyaenid or human origin of other similar cave accumulations of shed antlers throughout Europe.

Launceston is one of the Australian cities most affected by particle pollution due to the use of woodheaters in the winter months, with frequent exceedences of the national standard, the National Environment Protection Measure for Ambient Air Quality (or Air NEPM in short), of 50 micrograms per cubic metre for daily PM10 (particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of 10 μm or less). The main objective of the present study was to determine the woodheater carrying capacity for Launceston—the number of woodheaters that can operate in the city without exceeding the Air NEPM. For this purpose, a prognostic meteorological and air pollution model called TAPM is used, coupled to a gridded woodheater PM10 emissions inventory. The latter was derived using information on dwelling density, the percentage of dwellings with woodheaters, woodheater emission rates and their diurnal and seasonal variations, and the proportions of compliant/non-compliant woodheaters and open fireplaces. The model simulations are performed for the year 1998, and the concentrations are scaled for previous and subsequent years using trends in woodheater numbers and types. The modelled number of exceedences of the Air NEPM for the period 1997–2004 is in good agreement with the observations. The modelling indicates that the PM10 Air NEPM would be met in Launceston when the total number of woodheaters is 20% of the total number of dwellings, of which 76%, 18%, 6% would be compliant woodheaters, non-compliant woodheaters and open fireplaces, respectively. With the present trends in the regional woodheater profile, this should occur in the year 2007.

This paper presents the results of a study of firewood use and management by human groups in the Ongamira valley, Cordoba, Argentina (dated between c. 5700-950 BP). In order to understand firewood gathering practices at different periods in the Late Holocene, samples from 63 combustion events recorded in 9 rockshelters were analysed. From the anthracological analysis (14,976 fragments) 19 woody taxa, and 4 botanically indeterminate taxa, were identified belonging to Chaco Serrano forest vegetation. The identification of abundant small flat fireplaces suggests short-lived activities repeated over time. A detailed analysis of the samples (types of fire pits, alterations during combustion and taphonomic processes) permits inferring firewood gathering in the local vegetation around the sites, as well as some taxa belonging to different environmental settings. Archaeological evidence indicates that groups were mobile, with the establishment of a network of places in the landscape where different activities were carried out (tool production, food consumption and pottery manufacture) with fire making as a central activity. People in the past constantly used different places in the valley, focusing many of their activities in rockshelters.

In the Eastern European Plain, the Desna valley has delivered few gravettian settlements. The group of Pushkari is characterized by final gravettian occupations relied to the Last Glacial Maximum, before the maximum peak. These are the sites of Pushkari I and Pushkari VIII (Pogon). New excavations were conducted for the last decades. In order to highlight the subsistence strategies adopted by humans we proceeded to the zooarchaeological and lithic analyses of these assemblages. In both sites, the faunal spectrum is restricted, mainly composed of Mammuthus primigenius, then Equus sp., R. tarandus, Canis lupus and Vulpes vulpes/Vulpes lagopus. The skeletal preservation and mortality profile of mammoth shows that they were slaughtered and butchered by human groups. Furthermore some bones were gathered, particularly tusks, which are associated to a new dwelling structure, fireplaces and small pits. These are two of the few final Gravettian sites showing a quite developed organization of the camps. Reindeer, horse and canids could also be hunted more punctually for the exploitation of fur, fat, meat and marrow. Moreover we have an important use of bones as fuel, whose mammoth bones. According to the lithic study, this is local flint exploited to produce blades and bladelets, tool-kit contains backed points and rectangles, points of large form and burins, relied to hunting and butchering activities. The Pushkari group shows among the last occupations of the Desna valley by late Gravettian peoples of a specific ethnic group, before that the end of the Last Glacial Maximum peak marks the disappearance of late Gravettian peoples and of human populations between 19 and 16,000 BP.

Progress in the development of a test method for determining carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate (PM) emissions from fireplaces is described. Such a method must specify fueling and measurement procedures for determination of both emission rates (g h −1 ) and factors (g kg −1 ). The current version of the test method starts with a room temperature fireplace and monitors emissions for six and a half hours. The fuel load size and fueling intervals are dependent on the width of the firebox. Emission samples are extracted from a dilution tunnel with a set flow rate and configuration. Particulate matter sampling is similar to U.S. EPA Method 5G for woodstoves, and CO concentration is measured by a nondispersive infrared (NDIR) analyzer. Emissions from a range of fireplaces, including both factory-built and masonry fireplaces, were measured using various versions of the test method. The fueling protocol was not able to sustain a fire in some of the fireplaces. Modifications to the fueling protocol, fuel composition, and/or fueling rate scaling will be necessary before the test method can be used for fireplace emissions certification purposes.

The problem of smoke-filled living rooms appears to have remained untackled since Count Rumford's contribution in the 1970s (Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count of Rumford, Chimney fireplaces, with proposals for improving them to save fuel; to render dwelling houses more comfortable and salubrious, and effectually to prevent chimneys from smoking. Supplementary observations concerning chimney fireplaces. In, Essays, Political, Economical and Philosophical, T. Cadell, Jr., and W. Davies, 1796). Anecdotal evidence abounds that the problem is still very real today. Seven antidowndraught chimney pots produced by Hepworth Clay Products Ltd. and one standard pot for reference were wind tunnel tested to evaluate their effectiveness in preventing smoke blow-back. Tests were done at a range of angles of elevation and depression of the wind, as occurs when a vertically rotating turbulent gust passes over a pot. All but one (the H-pot) were found to be susceptible to blow-back in severe downdraughts. In moderate downdraughts, most effective were the multilouvred pots, followed by the horned pots. An additional aim was to devise an improved pot which would be effective under all conditions, aesthetically inoffensive and economically viable. Successful preliminary tests were made on a retro-fit modification to the ‘top-of-the-range’ pot (which unmodified actually performed worst of all), and further development of the concept is planned.

Through the use of monitoring, modeling, and emission inventories, the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) has identified residential wood combustion (RWC) as a significant source of air pollution in Oregon. Detailed emission inventories provide the best source of information to inform pollution reduction strategies. In order to refine and improve state and local RWC emission inventories, DEQ contracted with the Portland State University Survey Research Lab to perform a telephone survey on RWC in the Portland metro area. The goal of the project was to 1) quantify these emissions by type and location, and 2) to spatially allocate these emissions to US Census blocks in the study area and other parts of the state. Results, based on 1061 residences surveyed, showed that 4.3% of respondents burned wood for primary heating and 17.8% burned wood for secondary (backup heating or aesthetics) purposes. Primary burners burned four times more wood on average per device than secondary burners. As such, even though there were fewer primary burners they burned 51% of the total wood fuel combusted. The breakdown of estimated emissions of particulate matter 2.5 μm or less (PM2.5) from primary and secondary burners is nearly even, with 46.5% of emissions coming from primary burning and 53.5% of emissions coming from secondary burning. Uncertified woodstoves and inserts are the source of just over half (50.5%) the emissions in the Survey area, followed by emissions from certified woodstoves and inserts (26.3%), fireplaces (21.5%), pellet stoves (0.9%), and fire-log burning (0.8%). Survey results for burning activity and housing type showed good correlation, and were mapped to US Census housing data (units in structure) for block-groups. The Survey results also showed differences in burning behavior between urban/suburban and rural areas. This distinction coupled with housing types provided a method of spatial allocation for RWC activity and emissions that could be a useful tool for other states and regions.

Nowadays, the use of wood for cooking and heating has become very popular, especially in rural and suburban areas. Fireplaces and solid fuel stoves with heat accumulation provide both low-cost heating and an aesthetic atmosphere from burning wood. Additional benefits may also be connected with micro-scale power generation, realized using thermoelectric generators. The aim of this study was to examine the selected aspects of integration of a typical wood-fired stove with commercially available thermoelectric generators. Among several aspects included in the carried out analysis, there were e.g. the operation parameters of the tested stove (including temperature variations during combustion process), the efficiency of electricity generation in the tested thermoelectric generators and the requirements for the stove configuration and operation. Three types of thermoelectric generators were tested: two generators designed for mounting on a flat hot surface (cooling respectively by air and water) and one designed for mounting on a flue gas channel (cooling by water). The experiments were carried out using dedicated measuring, controlling, and visualizing systems with a PLC controller as well as an infrared camera. Thermographic analysis allowed determining of the temperature distribution on the rear wall of the stove and selection of the most optimal areas for mounting generators. However, non-homogeneous temperature distribution was observed, identified as one reason for lowering of operational efficiency of the generators. A further problem was identified in the case of the generator mounted on the flue gas channel being too low a cross-section of its gas channels (reducing flue gas flow volume). These problems significantly impacted on the operating characteristics of the thermoelectric generators – meaning they produced no more than 41.7, 31.2, and 7.2% of their nominal power, respectively. The obtained results enabled the proposal of two approaches connected with further development of the micro scale cogeneration systems with thermoelectric generators: These two methods would differ in terms of costs, final product price, and necessary fitting of production lines.

The financial crisis which struck the Greek economy since 2010 has changed significantly the profile of the country's urban particle emissions mainly due to the use of low cost fuels as wood and biomass products for residential heating. This study analyzed daily PM 10 concentration measurements and meteorological observations collected throughout 2016 at two medium sized cities in central Greece: Karpenisi and Lamia, aiming to identify the impact of stoves and fireplaces. PM 10 data were also analyzed along with synoptic conditions and backward air mass trajectories in order to identify atmospheric circulation patterns related to smog episodes in the two cities. Low temperatures were proven to be a key element which was associated with an increment of PM 10 levels in both cities, however more PM 10 episodes were observed in the high altitude city of Karpenisi, due to the more intensive wood burning in residential heating devices. Stagnant anticyclonic conditions during cold seasons were associated with the generation of exceedances of the daily PM 10 limit set by European Union regulations, due to the accumulation of emissions. Dust aerosol intrusions from the Sahara desert were also indicated whilst PM 10 transportation from northern directions through Balkan Peninsula is also possible.

In European efficient buildings, the share of energy use for DHW is a significant percentage of the heat requirement. The evaluation of DHW energy demand and consumption patterns has been neglected in the past and studies are located in Northern countries. This paper presents a survey conducted in Southern Italy. Descriptive statistics were performed to characterize DHW production by climatic zone. Inferential statistics were conducted to discover significant contextual and personal variables and identify usage groups. The most used energy source was biomass (49.3%), followed by methane gas (37.7%). Fireplaces were installed in the coldest zone, in detached houses, more in small municipalities (36%), and low-income families (32%). Solar systems were in 8% of dwellings having income higher than 28000€. Four clusters of dwellings were identified considering the daily usage hours. The eldest and less numerous households fell into the cluster with the lowest usage (3.5 hours). Households with a percentage less than 25% of unemployed components had more probability to belong to clusters with more DHW usages. The paper contributes to fill the investigation in the Mediterranean area and provides a systematic approach to expand the limited knowledge about the influencing factors on the DHW production and usage.

Presently, both in rural areas and in cities open fireplaces are still present and large quantities of wood are combusted every year. The present study aims to characterize aerosol size distribution, chemical composition and deposition in the human respiratory tract of particles emitted during the combustion of logs of oak in an open fireplace installed in the living room of a typical village house. CO2 and CO levels and aerosol size distribution have been continuously monitored and a PM10 sampler with two types of filters for chemical and microscopic analysis was also installed. The increment, between the operating periods and the indoor background, in the organic carbon and PM10 concentration due to the use of the fireplace is 15.7±0.6 (mean±standard deviation) and 58.5±6.2μgm-3, respectively. The two main polluting processes during the operation of the fireplace are the ignition with the subsequent refueling and the final cleaning of the residual ashes. In both phases mean values around 1800 particles cm-3 with CMD of 0.15μm were measured. However, while PM10 levels of 130±120μgm-3 were estimated for the ignition stage, values of 200±200μgm-3 were obtained during the final cleaning step. Assessment conducted according to ISO standard 7708:1995, demonstrated that a person who stays in a living room when an open fireplace is lit will inhale, on average, 217μgm-3 and 283μgm-3 during the ignition and the refueling stages, respectively. Subsequent refueling proved to be much less polluting. The ashes removal can also be very polluting and dangerous to health if there are hidden small incandescent embers among the ashes (estimated PM10 of 132μgm-3), reaching a CO2 level of 1940ppm and a dangerous level of CO of 132ppm.

Residential wood combustion from fireplaces and wood stoves represents a major source of aerosol emissions which can cause severe air quality deterioration, pose a serious threat to human health and climate change. Moreover, the emission estimates from this source have a high degree of uncertainty that in many emission inventories has not yet been assessed. This paper represents a first attempt to quantify the PM2.5 emission uncertainty from residential wood combustion in Italy. A bootstrap simulation analysis has been performed considering the data from the two most updated national surveys on wood consumption. The bootstrap simulations have been carried out both on a national and on a regional level varying wood consumption and emission factors of the different appliance type considered, but keeping constant their distribution in the whole national territory. The influence of the two resulting emission datasets on PM2.5 concentrations in Italy has been investigated with the MINNI model. The results show that the mean of PM2.5 total emissions for Italy is circa 120 kt, from a minimum of 97 kt to a maximum of 146 kt (−18.9%, +21.5% on the mean value). Moreover, a significant variation of annual average PM2.5 concentrations, with values higher than 10 μg/m3 in the most polluted areas, is shown by model results. The distribution influence of the different appliance types has been explored with a sensitivity test in the Veneto Region. This test reveals the importance of emission factors and technology share as the most important parameters influencing the uncertainty analysis.

This study explores the Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN) activity of atmospheric particles during intense biomass burning periods in an urban environment. During a one-month campaign in the center of Athens, Greece, a CCN counter coupled with a Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (SMPS) and a high resolution Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (HR-AMS) were used to measure the size-resolved CCN activity and composition of the atmospheric aerosols. During the day, the organic fraction of the particles was more than 50%, reaching almost 80% at night, when the fireplaces were used. Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) analysis revealed 4 factors with biomass burning being the dominant source after 18:00 until the early morning. The CCN-based overall hygroscopicity parameter κ ranged from 0.15 to 0.25. During the night, when the biomass burning organic aerosol (bbOA) dominated, the hygroscopicity parameter for the mixed organic/inorganic particles was on average 0.16. The hygroscopicity of the biomass-burning organic particles was 0.09, while the corresponding average value for all organic particulate matter during the campaign was 0.12.

Norwegian Early Mesolithic sites (9500–8000 cal. BC) are characterised by a standard lithic tool inventory with a uniform spatial distribution of the lithic debris. Generally, they are small and among the few sites on which it is possible to base analyses of site structures and patterns on an individual spatial level. Specific lithic dispersal patterns are associated with both dwellings and open-air sites. The dwellings are identified as tent rings of stone cobbles or circular areas cleared of larger stones with associated fireplaces and lithic debris. As these features are present in both coastal and mountain areas, they have been suggested as indicative of the Early Mesolithic way of life as mobile hunter-gatherers. A fundamental issue we have to deal with is the possible existence of a strict social and cultural conformity taking place among the hunter-gatherers throughout the large area southern Norway represents. Aspects of this social feature are discussed on the basis of three Early Mesolithic sites with dwelling remains from the coasts of Western and Eastern Norway as well as a mountain site.

Biomass has a key role in the future of the energetic scenario, since it is a programmable renewable energy source which is suitable either to generate power and/or produce heat. This paper deals with biomass combustion processes in small size boilers, which is suited either for large residential buildings, or for small size industrial users. This kind of boilers is different from small pellet stoves and fireplaces and from large utility size boilers. In particular, those small size boilers have been seldom studied in the scientific literature about the combustion kinetics and pollutant formation mechanisms. Hence, the authors present the thermo-chemical data collected from a 140 kWth chipped wood boiler at the University of Pisa. The effect of the air excess and the ratio between and secondary feeding air and primary feeding air mass flow rate, on CO, CO2 and NOx emissions was investigated. Results have shown that the air excess has the main influence on the pollutant produced. A comparison of the measured data with those presented in the literature and the discrepancies with other studies are also discussed.

TOPIC: Critical Care TYPE: Medical Student/Resident Case Reports INTRODUCTION: Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas found in fumes produced from carbon fuels in engines, stoves, and fireplaces. CO binds to hemoglobin forming a molecule called carboxyhemoglobin (CO-Hb), which has higher affinity to O2 than hemoglobin itself which leads to symptoms of hypoxia and ischemia. Given an adequate history, clinicians can quickly initiate treatment but differentials for shortness of breath (SOB) must be sought and ruled out. Our case report will discuss the importance of CO poisoning and its involvement in thrombus formation and development of a pulmonary embolism (PE). CASE PRESENTATION: 62 year old female with history of COPD was brought to ED due to acute SOB and lethargy. Upon EMS arrival, CO level was 800. While in transport in EMS, the patient's CO-Hb level was 34 (trended to 11.4). The patient was found to have sp02 of 86% on room air (RA), and was placed on 10L nonrebreather mask. Patient was hemodynamically stable and afebrile. Labs revealed WBC 17.96, platelet 409k (clumped), troponin 0.08 ng/mL, LDH 405 units/L, and CRP 22.3 mg/L. Patient was deemed not a candidate for hyperbaric oxygen therapy. CT Head without contrast ruled out intracranial pathology and UA ruled out UTI. Chest X-ray revealed bilateral hazy opacities. CTPE revealed RUL/RML segmental and subsegmental PE as well as bilateral GGO reflecting interstitial edema in the setting of CO poisoning. Echo revealed EF of 65% with no wall motion abnormalities. COVID PCR test resulted negative making PE more likely as cause for SOB and patient was started on therapeutic Lovenox and empiric Azithromycin and Ceftriaxone. Within 24 hours, patient clinically improved and was discharged on Xarelto. DISCUSSION: PE in patients with CO poisoning should be suspected if the patient does not clinically improve with initial treatment. CO toxicity has been known to cause inflammatory and obstructive changes to arterioles and venules. Furthermore, it may induce vasospasms and increase platelet aggregation, leading to venous thrombus formation. CO poisoning may also increase oxidative stress with nitric oxide and oxygen free radicals causing further damage to endothelial lining1 and leading to further platelet dysfunction. 2 This combination of vessel wall injury and stasis in blood flow are important for development of thrombus. Treatment of given thrombus will lead to moderate resolution of symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Treatment may be delayed in patients with coexisting PE and CO poisoning as it may be misdiagnosed. It is especially difficult to identify PE in patients with stable O2 saturation. However, the combination of endothelial damage and eventual increased platelet aggregation plays a critical role in thrombus formation in patients with CO toxicity. As a result, it is an important differential for patients with CO poisoning especially when symptoms do not respond to initial treatment. REFERENCE #1: Ruth-Sahd LA, Zulkosky K, Fetter ME. Carbon monoxide poisoning: case studies and review. Dimens Crit Care Nurs. 2011 Nov-Dec;30(6):303-14. doi: 10.1097/DCC.0b013e31822fb017. PMID: 21983502. REFERENCE #2: Ikeda H, Koga Y, Oda T, Kuwano K, Nakayama H, Ueno T, Toshima H, Michael LH, Entman ML. Free oxygen radicals contribute to platelet aggregation and cyclic flow variations in stenosed and endothelium-injured canine coronary arteries. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994 Dec;24(7):1749-56. doi: 10.1016/0735-1097(94)90183-x. PMID: 7963124. REFERENCE #3: Sevinc A, Savli H, Atmaca H. An interesting cause of pulmonary emboli: acute carbon monoxide poisoning. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. 2005 Jul;11(3):353-7. doi: 10.1177/107602960501100317. PMID: 16015424. DISCLOSURES: no disclosure on file for Jagadish Akella;No relevant relationships by Javed Iqbal, source=Web Response No relevant relationships by Vaishali Mehta, source=Web Response No relevant relationships by Najia Sayedy, source=Web Response

Air pollution emitted by residential biomass combustion (RBC) is a known cause of adverse health and climate effects. Currently, manufacturers of stoves and fireplaces are facing challenges due to tightening emission regulations, such as the Ecodesign Directive in the European Union. Consequently, there is a demand for new emission control solutions for RBC. Herein, a novel method has been introduced to reduce particulate emissions, namely: high-temperature electric soot collector (HiTESC). In this method, an electrically insulated high-voltage electrode is installed in a combustion chamber, which generates an electric field. Particles that acquire the electrical charges produced by flames are collected on the electrode surface and oxidized at high temperatures. A fine particle (PM1) reduction efficiency of 45% was achieved using this method in a logwood-fired masonry heater. The reduction efficiency of the method was found to be dependent on the combustion phase. The PM1 reduction was most efficient during the flaming conditions, when the PM emissions were the highest with the studied logwood appliance. The advantages of this method are its simple construction, low space requirement, and low energy consumption; further, it does not require a separate cleaning mechanism. The proposed method can be used in logwood-fired combustion appliances to achieve future emission regulation limits, without using costly exhaust after-treatment systems.

Poor infrastructure in developing countries, combined with challenging geographical characteristics, is associated with problems of limited access to resources, poor transportation and environmental health issues. In some developing countries, there are no heating systems during the winter season, which causes problems for both people and livestock. The most common heating source is from open fires using biomass from animal and plant residue, which are also used for cooking. Fireplaces are typically located inside the house, which can lead to respiratory health problems because of limited ventilation. Thus, heating systems with proper ventilation are desirable to mitigate health problems and improve living conditions. Here we describe the application of ‘Ondol’, a traditional Korean heating system that was redesigned for improved efficiency, in remote villages in a mountainous region of Nepal. Total 10 models of Ondol were designed and fabricated, and the temperature profile and uniformity were characterized to select the optimal design. The height and type of the ‘Gorae’ were the most important factors in determining the efficiency. The optimal design was provided to local people, who were trained to replicate and build the Ondol on their own. A post-installation survey was carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of the system.

The Pago Lindo site in the River Plate basin (Uruguay) is an important pre-hispanic mound settlement (ca. 3000–600 BP), of which the technologically and socially advanced nature have only recently been revealed. Different angles of pedogenetic and palaeo-ecological science are rapidly improving our understanding of the history of the site and the relationships between human activity and habitat alteration. Here we add to this progress by molecular characterization of soil organic matter (SOM) in anthropogenic earthen mounds, canals and lagoons from Pago Lindo, by pyrolysis-GC–MS. The results showed that the SOM in the earthen mound and the archaeological lagoon are composed of microbial (partially chitin), aliphatic (partially root-derived) and pyrogenic (from fireplaces or wildfires) materials, whereas the canal and younger lagoon contained SOM with larger proportions of relatively intact plant remains (lignin and polysaccharides from herbaceous species). In most systems, a clear degradation trend can be observed with increasing depth –either from intact plant remains to microbial tissues (canal, young lagoon), or from microbial tissues to recalcitrant aliphatic and pyrogenic sources (earthen mound, ancient lagoon)– which is indicative of a strong control of decay intensity on SOM composition. Multivariate statistics confirmed that most variability in pyrolysis fingerprints can be attributed to degradation/preservation dynamics, which probably erased most of the molecular information on habitat development under the influence of past societies, including nearby maize cultivation., We would like to express our gratitude to the financing organisms of the Pago Lindo mound site: The Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports, and the institutions where the study was performed, i.e. Incipit (CSIC, Spain) and various centers of the Universidad de la República (Uruguay): Laboratorio de Arqueología del Paisaje y Patrimonio (FHCE) and PDU Aportes a la Gestión Sostenible de Sistemas Agrarios (CURE).

Post-depositional fire events significantly affecting flint concentrations obstruct the location of hearths in Late Palaeolithic open air camps. Lacking the location of fireplaces in the settlement structure, an analysis meets difficulties in approaching activities and daily life at open-air camps. The proposed research procedure concerns the quantitative characteristics of the domestic units and integral parts of workshops, which included hearths, enabling the interpretation of flint concentrations, even if they have been affected by natural fire. The procedure was tested through its application to several Swiderian sites on the North European Plain.

Energy efficiency of cultural heritage is not only an engineer issue. Many professionals and Institutions have to be involved in the design process. Furthermore, the building survey plays a crucial role in providing opportunities to the designers to find the most compatible solution. This paper shows the “Galleria Borghese” case study, in Rome, which is one of the most important Italian museum. Recent literature defined the energy efficiency of listed buildings dedicated to museum as the most challenging environment. For this reason, this study explored the available rooms to guarantee Indoor Environmental Quality, architecture preservation and sustainability. The disruption caused by some plant breakdowns climate that have occurred in recent years provided stress to the visitors comfort and overall exhibited works unsuitable for their preservation. From an analysis of the current situation and the calculation of winter and summer thermal loads of the building and the ventilation air flow rates, the study shows some viable proposals having as objective: the reduction of the heat load of the building in summer, a better air exchange and overall a modernization of the plant expansion. A participatory process allowed to involve in the design architectural elements by converting them to a new role such as the chimney of fireplaces as part of the new HVAC system.

Improvements of energy efficiency and reduction of Electricity Consumption (EC) could be pushed by increased knowledge on consumption profiles. This paper contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the EC profiles in a Southwest European city through the combination of high-resolution data from smart meters (daily electricity consumption) with door-to-door 110-question surveys for a sample of 265 households in the city of Evora, in Portugal. This analysis allowed to define ten power consumption clusters using Ward's method hierarchical clustering, corresponding to four distinct types of annual consumption profiles: U shape (sharp and soft), W shape and Flat. U shape pattern is the most common one, covering 77% of the sampled households. The results show that three major groups of determinants characterize the electricity consumption segmentation: physical characteristics of a dwelling, especially year of construction and floor area; HVAC equipment and fireplaces ownership and use; and occupants’ profiles (mainly number and monthly income). The combination of the daily EC data with qualitative door-to-door survey-based data proved to be a powerful data nutshell to distinguish groups of power consumers, allowing to derive insights to support DSOs, ESCOs, and retailers to design measures and instruments targeted to effective energy reduction (e.g. peak shaving, energy efficiency).

Cukurici Hoyuk and Arvalya Hoyuk are two prehistoric settlement mounds (tells) located in parallel striking valleys in the environs of Ephesus, W Turkey. They were studied with geoarchaeological methods in order to reconstruct their environmental setting, areal extension and distinct settlement phases, as well as the vegetation history. Both tells are situated on small ridges flanked by rivers and their alluvial plains which were suitable for cultivation. The Neolithic coastline was located at a distance of c. 1.5–2 km to the north. Cukurici Hoyuk covers an area of c. 200 m × 100 m; its strata have a total thickness of at least 8.50 m. The oldest remains, dating from the 7th millennium BC, represent an advanced Neolithic culture closely linked to the sea. The oldest foundations reveal that the site was intentionally chosen on the ridge within the still naturally wooded vegetated landscape. Other than Cukurici Hoyuk, Arvalya Hoyuk has not yet been excavated. However, geophysical measurements and corings revealed that it covers an area of c. 100 m × 60 m, and that it is constructed of several settlement layers with a total thickness of at least 3.50 m. Radar and geomagnetic images show building structures including fireplaces and pits, surrounded by a rampart-ditch construction as a potential enclosure.

People living or working in and around artisanal small-scale gold mining communities can be exposed to mercury vapour, which may negatively affect their health. In this study, the human exposure to air borne mercury in an artisanal mining community in the Upper East region of Ghana was investigated using Lumex RA 915 M mercury analyser, an active sampler. The concentration of mercury in air was measured inside and outside households and was related to human health risk standards. For each household, one measurement was taken from outside and three from inside at different positions. About 91% of the households where amalgam burning was reported had concentrations higher than the USEPA reference dose of 300 ng m−3 whereas 64% of the households where amalgam burning was not reported exceeded the reference dose above. The maximal (upper) instrumental limit (50,000 ng m−3) was passed for the highest concentrations, so, the upper 97.5% concentration was estimated, using censored statistics, to exceed 800,000 ng m−3 for the fireplaces. This exceeds any reported indoor household air concentration of Hg, identified by the literature review in this paper. Estimated hazard quotients were found to range from

The causes of systematic decay of the Earth´s Magnetic Field strength since eighteen century have been a matter of debate during the last decade. It is also well known that such variations may have completely different expressions under an area characterized with strong magnetic anomalies, such as the South Atlantic Magnetic Anomaly. To fully understand these atypical phenomena, it is crucial to retrieve the past evolution of Earth´s magnetic field beyond the observatory records. We report a detailed rock-magnetic and archeointensity investigations from some well-studied historical buildings of Buenos Aires city, located in the hearth of the South Atlantic Magnetic Anomaly. Samples consist of bricks, tiles, fireplaces and pottery which are considered as highly suitable materials for archaeointensity studies. The dating is ascertained by historical documents complemented by archeological constraints. Eighteen out of 26 analyzed samples yield reliable absolute intensity determinations. The site-mean archaeointensity values obtained in this study range from 28.5 to 43.5 µT, with corresponding virtual axial dipole moments (VADMs) ranging from 5.3 to 8.04 1022 Am2. Most determinations obtained in the present study show remarkable agreement with the values predicted by the time varying field model CALS10k.1b [Korte et al. 2011]. South American archaeointensity database now includes absolute intensities from 400 to 1930 AD based on 63 selected archaeointensity determinations. The data set shows several distinct periods of quite large fluctuations of intensity. However, most data are concentrated into a relatively narrow interval from ad 1250 to ad 1450. At the beginning of the record, values between 400 AD and 830 AD match well with ARCH3K model. Some general features may be detected: the time intervals from about AD 400 to 950 and 1150 to 1280 are characterized by a quite monotonic decrease of geomagnetic intensity, while some increase is observed from AD 950 to 1250. In contrast, a systematic intensity decay is detected from 1550 to 1930 in excellent agreement with the model data. No firm evidence of correlation between the climate changes over multi-decadal time scales and geomagnetic intensity was found for South America. Fil: Goguitchaichvili, Avto. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; México Fil: Morales, Juan. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; México Fil: Schavelzon Chavin, Daniel Gaston. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo. Instituto de Arte Americano e Investigaciones Estéticas "Mario J. Buschiazzo". Centro de Arqueologia Urbana; Argentina Fil: Vasquez, Carlos Alberto. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Ciclo Básico Común; Argentina Fil: Gogorza, Claudia Susana. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Tandil. Centro de Investigaciones en Física e Ingeniería del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires; Argentina Fil: Loponte, Daniel Marcelo. Secretaría de Cultura de la Nación. Dirección Nacional de Cultura y Museos. Instituto Nacional de Antropología y Pensamiento Latinoamericano; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina Fil: Augusto Rapalini. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Ciudad Universitaria. Instituto de Geociencias Básicas, Aplicadas y Ambientales de Buenos Aires; Argentina

The Dolni Věstonice I site is one of the most significant Pavlovian localities known from southern Moravia. Numerous lithic and osseous tools were discovered in different areas, associated with a vast assemblage of animal bones collected from the surface of the entire site. The materials in this study come from the upper part of the site (excavations carried out 1924–28 and 1948–52) where five dwelling structures were described, accompanied by fireplaces and mammoth bone concentrations. This area is located close to a huge mammoth bone accumulation in a natural depression. The faunal composition discovered at Dolni Věstonice I is typical for other Pavlovian localities primarily known from southern Moravia. The percentage of mammoth remains is high, although they do not dominate in this assemblage. Cut marks on mammoth bones discovered during the studies clearly show that the meat of these animals was consumed, but in addition to mammoth, an extremely important role in the subsistence practices was also played by reindeer, horse, and carnivores, which account for around 40% of the complete identifiable assemblage. Cut marks are found on numerous bones of carnivores, especially wolf and wolverine. We conclude that the carnivores, in addition to other taxa commonly discovered at Palaeolithic sites, were an important component of the diet of Pavlovian hunters.

The Earth’s geomagnetic field intensity in the past can be determined from archeological artifacts. These archeointensity data are important inputs for geomagnetic field models and local reference curves of Earth’s magnetic field. Although archeointensities have been measured on materials for more than half a century ago, data are still scarce before 1000 BC and for the Alpine area in general. This investigation presents new absolute archeointensity data from a time period of 5000–700 BC from Italy and Switzerland. The archeological materials that were studied are ceramics, copper slag, and burned sediments from fireplaces. In addition, we investigated archeointensities from burned cherts, in order to uncover if they are a suitable material for paleomagnetism. Rock magnetic properties of all samples indicate magnetite, and small amounts of maghemite and hematite in the pseudosingle domain range as the ferromagnetic carriers. The IZZI protocol was used for 96 specimens to obtain absolute intensities; 23 ceramics, slags and burned cherts passed the threshold criteria, which we applied. The choice of the threshold values allowed us to obtain the linear part in the Arai diagram, which corresponds to the characteristic remanent magnetization. Burned sediments did not pass the threshold criteria, most probably because they acquired a thermochemical remanent magnetization during their formation. We demonstrate that magnetic susceptibility and saturation isothermal remanent magnetization can be used to select cherts that are suitable for paleointensity determinations. After applying anisotropy and cooling rate corrections, the new archeointensity values are lower for some samples, but fit well with available models and other archeomagnetic data.

This paper presents an overview of the Malawi energy situation and the potential of renewable energy resources including solar, wind, biomass, hydro and geothermal. Despite a range of efforts by local and international stakeholders to increase access to modern energy sources in the country, 89 per cent of Malawi׳s energy is still sourced from traditional biomass mainly fuel wood. Only 8 per cent of the population in Malawi have access to electricity but installed capacity of electricity generation is lower than demand. This leads to load shedding by the electricity supplier; consequently electricity supply in Malawi is unreliable and micro and macroeconomic activities are significantly affected. Solar, non-traditional biomass (crop residues and forest residues not burnt on three stone fireplaces, and biogas), hydro, wind and geothermal are potential energy resources that could enhance Malawi׳s energy security. However, unreliable financing mechanisms for large scale energy projects; shortage of trained human resource; lack of coordination among local institutions; unclear regulation enforcement; and sometimes political governance impede sustainable delivery of energy projects. The Malawi energy policy targets and drivers are also discussed in the paper. Based on the prevailing energy situation, a PESTLE analysis is provided in this paper outlining a novel thinking for addressing the political (P), economic (E), social (S), technological (T), legal (L), and environmental (E) challenges that constrain the development of renewable energy technologies in Malawi.

This thesis presents pilot studies concerning the assessment of the possibility of using organic materials of vegetative origin as indices of heavy metals emissions (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) from domestic wood-fired fireplaces. Mosses of the Pleurozium schreberi species as well as cellulose and cotton wool were used during the study as the potential indices for the elements emission. It was proved that mosses are more reliable as indices of metals emissions than cellulose or cotton wool. It was found that the quantity of Ni accumulated in the moss tissue is comparable with the concentration of this compound in the dust assessed with the reference method. A correlation between the Ni, Cr, Zn and Pb concentrations defined in the mosses and dust filter was found. It was proved that mosses as adsorbers, more clearly than in the case of cellulose and cotton, react to the change of the size of the particulates emitted.