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This dissertation contains three independent papers on labor and demographic economics. In the first paper, I develop evidence, hypothesize, and empirically examine the effects of different types of prior experience of founders on annual job creation in new ventures. I use a two-stage estimation method; a random-effects negative binomial model (second stage) corrected for survival bias using a discrete-time hazard model (first stage). The paper adds to the literature by examining how the impact of founder experience on job creation changes under uncertainty using high-tech industries and industry recession as proxies for uncertainty., In the second paper, I utilize an intersectionality framework of gender and race/ethnicity to examine retention in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) workforce, employing a multinomial/binary logit framework. I also examine the factors impacting the movement of STEM graduates either into STEM-unrelated jobs or out of the labor force. The paper aims to contribute to the existing literature by accommodating a switch to career pathways that require STEM expertise in non-STEM environments as well., In the third paper, I explore whether the proportion of women in leadership positions (leadership diversity) is lower in the STEM sectors than in the non-STEM sector at both low- and high-level leadership positions. I then examine whether the gender gap in leadership attainment in STEM occupations is related to occupational sex composition. To achieve this, the paper applies an endogenous switching probit model to account for workers’ self-selection into public and private sectors.

In response to concerns about university students stress and mental health, many universities offer animal visitation programs (AVPs). While popular, nothing is known about the role of students’ separation anxiety from their childhood pet(s) either in shaping experiences during the transition to university, their engagement in available AVPs, or their effects. Drawn from a random sample of first-year university students (N=2,000), this dissertation recruited incoming students separated from their family pet, and randomly assigned them to a semester long, bi-weekly AVP program featuring 2-hour sessions (N=105) or a waitlist control condition (N=104). Together, three independent manuscripts examine 1) the prevalence and predictors of pet separation anxiety (PSA); 2) the role of PSA and psychological mood symptoms predicting AVP uptake (e.g., frequency, duration); and 3) the efficacy of AVP on trajectories of psychological risk and resilience. Results from Paper 1 revealed that 1 in 4 students reported moderate-severe PSA during their first week on campus. Symptom severity was significantly related to people-substituting-pet-attachment (β=0.19, p=0.015), spending more time with pets compared to other pet owners (β=0.24, p=0.002), talking to pets (β=0.19, p=0.009), and pet-co-sleeping (β=0.16, p=0.027). Results from Paper 2 revealed that early program attendance was informed by students’ mental health history (B= -0.876, p=0.03, OR=0.417), early semester stress (B= -0.177, p=0.04, OR=0.838) and anxiety (B= 0.179, p=0.01, OR=1.196). Overall attendance frequency (β=-0.342, p=0.004, d=0.697) and duration (β=-0.286, p=0.03, d=0.529) were negatively associated with high PSA. Results from Paper 3 showed students in the AVP condition had more adaptive trajectory slopes for depression (B=-3.05, p=0.01, d=0.514), worry (B=-3.92, p=0.04, d=0.416,) stress, (B=-1.94, p=0.05, d=0.386), and self-compassion (B=4.03, p=3 sessions) and high PSA were controlled. This dissertation suggests PSA is important both in considering students' risk during the transition to university, the influence on uptake of AVPs and their effects on psychological wellbeing. In sum, while AVPs are considered a resource for students missing their pets, high PSA students are less likely to attend AVPs efficacious in preventing declines in psychological adjustment during what many experience as a stressful transition.

This dissertation contains three distinct papers on fertility behavior and domestic violence. Chapter one examines the effectiveness of the policy on fertility, proportion of male children, and female infant mortality. We utilize data from the fourth round of the National Family Health Survey (2015-2016) and use propensity score matching models to examine whether the policy influences household fertility behavior. First, fertility behavior of women residing in the policy states who married before the mandate are compared to those who married after the mandate implementation. Second, fertility behavior of women residing in the policy states are compared to those living in non-policy states. While the policy is found to lower the number of children in a household, there is no significant change in the proportion of male children in a household or in female infant mortality. However, pre-policy absence of a male child is positively and statistically significantly associated with excess fertility.Chapter two examines inconsistencies between an individual’s expectations regarding an ideal number of children and their current desire for children. The results show that societal influence does affect an individual’s fertility decision-making process and that knowledge of modern contraceptive methods has a significant impact on both spouses’ inconsistency between ideal and current desire for children. Inconsistency is significantly associated with number of children and proportion of male children in family. However, causal pathways between inconsistency and fertility outcomes may not be established using cross-sectional data and when implementing OLS estimation., Chapter three studies the causal effect of acceptance of domestic violence on actual physical and sexual abuse incidence. Both spouses’ attitudes toward the issue are analyzed. Results indicate that both husband and wife’s attitudes toward the issue are positively and significantly associated with domestic violence incidence. However, results from the IV estimation indicates only wife’s attitude have positive causal effect on husband’s abuse behavior in rural area. I also find that there is a high rate of cross generational transmission of attitudes towards domestic violence from results of the first stage regressions of the IV probit model. The results are in general consistent across different income and caste and religion groups.

This dissertation contains three distinct papers in health economics. Chapter one examines the heterogeneous effects of childhood bullying and chronic bullying on a wide range of outcomes using Ordinary Least Squares and Propensity Score Matching. We find that exposure to childhood bullying and chronic bullying negatively affects youths' physical and mental health. Victimized individuals are more likely to engage in risky behaviors. The adverse effects tend to increase with chronic bullying. We find no causal effects of childhood or chronic bullying on educational attainment. Childhood bullying is positively associated with social skills, whereas chronic bullying victimization is not related to cognitive or social skills. Individuals who were exposed to childhood or chronic bullying join the labor market at earlier ages than non-victims. Finally, chronic bullying victimization increases the likelihood of utilizing mental health services and experiencing life-disrupting emotional problems in adulthood. Being a victim of childhood bullying increases the likelihood of having emotional problems later in life; however, the effect is smaller than chronic victims.Chapter two focuses on measuring the direct and indirect effects of chronic bullying victimization on labor market outcomes. We find that chronic bullying victimization is directly associated with lower wages. The indirect wage penalty is driven by education, work experience, and occupational outcomes. Chronic bullying victimization is associated with fewer years of education and work experience. Victims of chronic bullying victimization work in occupations that require lower interpersonal, leadership, and independence skills. Our findings indicate that chronic bullying victimization may have a substantially larger total effect on wages due to the indirect effects than what previous studies document., Chapter three examines the relationship between a woman's mental health state and her fertility behavior. We use the discrete-time hazard model and Poisson regression to estimate the effect of mental health on the age at the first birth and the number of children. Our results show that better mental health is associated with an earlier transition into motherhood. We provide evidence that women with better mental health have fewer children. We discuss the potential implications of these results to post-pandemic fertility and future research.