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Echeverría comenta a Ferrater que ha llegit el llibre "Ética" de Scheler en fa alguns comentaris. Li envia un article sobre Descartes que ha acabat i on hi resumeix alguns pensaments continguts en el seu llibre. Li agradaria que Ferrater n'hi fes algun comentari crític. Echeverría expressa el seu desig de veure'l i poder conversar de filosofia, especialment de la necessitat de trobar un mètode que procedeixi per "integración" de posicions extremes. Scheler, Max Keyserling, Hermann Graf von Castillo, Jaime Balmaceda Ramos, Carmen París Europa

Comentari sobre l'estudi de la filosofia i l'ètica. Publicacions relacionades Wittgenstein, Ludwig Moore, George Edward Marichal López, Juan Espanya

El artículo desarrolla la concepción de Emmanuel Levinas sobre el lenguaje y su ubicación dentro del giro lingüístico-hermenéutico de la filosofía contemporánea. Se lo relaciona con los autores comprendidos en este esto giro (Heidegger, Gadamer, Ricoeur, Derrida) por la importancia concedida al lenguaje a la vez que se lo distingue radicalmente de ellos por su original transmutación ética del lenguaje. En la argumentación se recuperan las nociones filosóficas principales con que Levinas tematiza la cuestión del lenguaje: deseo, diacronía, decir y dicho, huella, ausencia, no-indiferencia. Levinas’ standpoint in the hermeneutic turn: language as ethics”. This paper develops Emmanuel Levinas’ conceptions about language and its placein the linguistic-hermeneutic turn of contemporary philosophy. It examines the relations with the authors associated to this turn (Heidegger, Gadamer, Ricoeurand Derrida) due to the importance given to language and, at the same time, it sets him apart from them for his original ethical transmutation of language. This paper also considers the main philosophical notions by which Levinas treats the topic of language: desire, diachrony, the said and the saying, trace, absence, no-indifference, otherness. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. Departamento de Humanidades

Numerous management papers emphasizes the importance of strategic thinking among managers, but the issue that has been paid less attention is the link between strategic thinking and values. This link connects moralities with business logic. This paper aims at illustrating and defining conceptual framework for the explanation of connection between ethics and strategic thinking. Based on content analysis method, this research paper examines concepts concerning business in Nahjolbalagheh. It attempts to extract central ideas implied in that noteworthy Islamic source. By evaluating their significance and frequency, these ideas will be our guide for understanding the connection between ethic and strategic thinking. In the model derived from the Nahjolbalagheh, Imam Ali (A.S.) based on a transcendental attitude gives business divine approach along with materialistic one. The model presents ethical indices influencing business by focusing on basic indices of business. It demonstrates thinking criteria in business according to the Nahjolbalagheh. Efficiency of strategic thinking requires presentation of the model that shows the criteria of business strategic in a perfect interaction with moral values and includes ethical content associates with a well-defined process.

To an increasing extent the activities of an individual or organization have direct effects upon others. These effects, which the economist calls external economies or diseconomies, may be in the form of waste discharge to the atmosphere, land, or water; sound; structures with certain visible consequences for others than the owner; or chemicals and radiation that flow from the propagator to the property or body of someone else. Throughout the world, governmental institutions have been called upon to regulate in one way or another activities which cause such effects. In this paper, those effects of human activity which are unintended and which have an impact upon parties other than the producer or consumer of the goods or services resulting from the activity will be called external effects.1 Parallelling this increase in external effects has been a growth in the complexity of materials incorporated into foods, medicines, clothing, and structures of all kinds. These may have unintended, and at times harmful, effects upon the user. Because of the difficulty most individuals have in being informed about these effects and their possible consequences, government has intervened to require the disclosure of consequences, to preclude the use of the materials, or to establish levels of tolerance. To distinguish these impacts from external effects they will be referred to in this statement as side effects. One of the techniques that governments have used in dealing with both external effects and side effects is to establish standards of tolerance. In the United States we have a vast array of such standards including stream standards and effluent standards for water quality, standards governing the use of certain chemicals in food, structural specifications for automobiles to increase safety, and regulations which specify how certain lands may or may not be used. These various standards have one or more of three general objectives: 1. To limit external effects to a level that the net returns to society as a whole are acceptable.2 2. To achieve an "equitable" distribution of costs and returns among those involved in or affected by an activity having external effects. 3. To inform or protect the consumer from the adverse side effects associated with the use of certain materials. In the United States we have come to view the use of standards as the primary, if not the sole, means of dealing with external and side effects. It is my purpose in this paper to probe the nature of the problems with which a standards tech

This paper attempts an exhaustive review of the literature on the psychotherapeutic relationship. The nature of the ideal psychotherapeutic relationship is defined and approximations of this ideal are shown to correlate positively with various measures of patient progress in the therapeutic enterprise. Other correlates of good therapeutic relationships are then explored: patient variables, therapist variables, therapistpatient similarity, and technique variables. In all these areas, significant correlations are found, though not as often as one might expect. The research on therapist variables is especially disappointing, while patient variables seem to be quite good predictors of the quality of the ensuing patient-therapist relationship. Methodological issues are considered throughout the paper. Psychotherapy has been variously defined. In this paper, it will refer to a warm, permissive, safe, understanding, but limited social relationship within which therapist and patient discuss the affective behavior of the latter, including his ways of dealing with his emotionally toned needs and the situations that give rise to them [Shoben, 1953, p. 1271. Some writers on the subject of psychotherapy have focused on the "within which aspects, citing numerous techniques as being more or less beneficial. Others have focused on the fact that psychotherapy is a relationship, and they have asserted that factors directly associated with this phenomenon contribute significantly to success or failure. This paper addresses itself to the validity of the latter assertion. The literature cited covers the period 1946-62.

It is assumed that psychological techniques are now available for the modification of human behavior. This paper focuses on the implications of this technological advance for clinical psychology. The dilemma consists in the problem of justifying use of subtle influencing techniques in clinical procedures in the face of the popular assumption of the integrity, dignity and rights to freedom of the patient. The first step in the resolution of this dilemma is the recognition that a therapeutic effort by necessity influences the patient's value system as well as his specific symptoms. Control of behavior is wide-spread and historically not a new discovery. It was the purpose of this paper to discuss three features of the psychotherapeutic process which tend to raise ethical as well as scientific problems: (1) the particular methods of control used, (2) the domain of the behavior to be controlled, and (3) the discrepancy between personal values and cultural metavalues. It was noted that methods of psychological control appear more dangerous to the public when they are subtle in their influence and when their methods rest on control by rewards or positive reinforcement, rather than on coercion, or physical force. With regard to the domain of behavior to be controlled it was noted that most therapeutic strategies deal with the private, personal and intimate aspects of a person's life. This choice of material results in more powerful control over a person's behavior than material which is easily accessible to the community. Finally, it is pointed out that there are numerous ways in which a person can behave without violating the metavalues of his culture. The specific changes in personal values may be heavily influenced by the therapist. The paper suggested that the social community as a whole and not just the psychologist needs to establish rules within which psychological behavior modifications can be carried out.

Parasitic disease has both structure and function, and the most complex structures are to be found where parasite (in the broad sense) and host have become mutually adapted to each other, forming an endemic focus wherein the host population carries with it the seeds of its own partial destruction. By now we know enough to assert as sound theory that these endemic diseases function as actual vehicles of natural selection. The incidence of these diseases in natural and man-made populations suggests that each one removes a rather broad spectrum of unadapted phenotypes from the breeding population. Since the functions of each disease are probably quite interchangeable, the elimination of each endemic disease will have only limited influence on mortality statistics. We have to find ways of dealing effectively with these diseases as a class, or as a set, which will require the development ofunusual concepts and techniques. If this proves possible, we should be able to increase the productivity of the ecosystem without damaging it, because it should let us increase livestock production with substantially less waste. Of more importance, however, is the concept that if we can find out how to increase man's options in coping with these diseases as they afflict humans, both in traditional and advanced societies, we shall make a great step forward in reducing much of the misery of the human condition. This paper attempts to design a biological model capable of testing the hypotheses arising from the theory of natural selection by disease, setting such constraints as seem currently useful to optimize the rapidity

In complex therapeutic settings the extent of confidentiality must be defined for each relationship. This paper discusses certain conditions leading to a break in confidentiality and makes recommendations for: specific focus on confidentiality in training programs; a tribunal to assist therapists confronted with difficult decisions; and regularly featured discussions in journals.

The common assumption that all “mature” people share the same moral and ethical standards has led psychologists (and others) to overlook the importance of individual differences in moral reasoning. But reasons, say the present authors, far from being an irrelevant adjunct to personality, are an important key to understanding it. This paper reports a study of four types of conscience orientation and their relationships to other personality characteristics.

“Between the laboratory and the clinic lies almost the entire natural environment of humanity, practically untouched and unexplored by direct scientific procedures.” Yet electronic devices exist by which the scientist could not only record but modify the day-to-day behavior of his subjects or patients. The obvious dangers of abuse of these powerful tools may be why scientists have not made use of them. But these electronic devices may be used for constructive as well as destructive purposes, and their potential usefulness in understanding and solving human problems should not be neglected. This paper outlines some uses which the psychologist, the therapist, the social worker, and others concerned with human behavior might make of these devices.

IT iS an honor to have received the Martha May Eliot Award. Through her persistent concern for the physical and social well-being of mothers and children, Dr. Eliot has always emphasized the social needs of families and the services required to lessen or prevent social problems. She saw the social factors as an integral part of adequate medical care of mothers and children. Recognition of social needs and decisions regarding the kind, extent, and quality of services is based on the social values one holds. Social values then become basic to an understanding of what the people need and to the planning for and evaluation of services. This paper will present some changing social values in progressive maternal and child health programs today and will attempt to clarify some of the limitations in our thinking or in the application of accepted values to the programs we establish.

This paper assesses the ethical conduct of public officials in Kenya’s education sector with respect to how they engage in the public release of personal data. This is analyzed in the practice of public announcement of national examination results with all the identifiers in place. While addressing the broader interest in ethics in thehandling and usage of personal data, this article uses content analysis method to review industry, academic and other literature on examination results release practices in Kenya. The discussion applies the Data Protection Act and the Constitution of Kenya, 2010, to review the examination results release practices in the Ministry of Education(MoE) and by teachers across the country. The discussion applies several ethical theories to draw recommendations that can inform public officials and the concerned institutions on ethical decision-making processes in the release of personal data. Both the deontological and utilitarian approaches are found to be viable for concerned authorities and actors to reach ethical decisions and actions.

At the outset a distinction was made between criticisms directed at the validity of tests and criticisms not affected by the validity of the tests. It was noted further that all criticisms of tests must take into consideration the type of test and the use to which the test is put. Criticisms of the validity of tests involved the following issues: (i) tests may be unfair to certain groups and individuals, including the extremely gifted, the culturally disadvantaged, and those who lack experience in taking tests; (ii) tests are not perfect predictors of subsequent performance; (iii) tests may be used in overly rigid ways; (iv) tests may not measure inherent qualities of individuals; and (v) tests may contribute to their own predictive validity by serving as self-fulfilling prophecies. Criticisms that are more or less independent of test validity included the effects of tests on (i) thinking patterns of those tested frequently; (ii) school curricula; (iii) self-image, motivation, and aspirations; (iv) groups using tests as a criterion for selection or allocation, or both; and (v) privacy. Several concluding remarks are in order: 1) This paper has focused almost entirely on criticisms of tests. However, the positive value of standardized tests should not be ignored. Here we must keep in mind what possible alternative measures would be used if standardized tests were abandoned. 2) We must begin thinking about tests in a much broader perspective- one that includes consideration of the social effects of tests as well as their validity and reliability. 3) Finally, an effort should be made to develop rational and systematic policies on the use of tests with the culturally disadvantaged, the dissemination of test results, and the problem of invasion of privacy. Such policies can be formulated only if we are willing to take a long hard look at the role we want testing to play in the society. Standardized tests currently are a cornerstone in the edifice of stratification in American society. It is up to the social scientist to conduct research that will enable policy makers in education, business and industry, and government to determine in a consistent and rational way the ultimate shape of this edifice.

The author enlarges on Dr. Fred M. Sander's paper summarizing his views and positions in regard to mental illness and its treatment. The difference between voluntary and involuntary assumption of the sick role is emphasized as one of the principal differences between the practices of medicine and psychiatry. Dr. Szasz believes that the social sciences face a major dilemma in the manipulative tendency to view man as object rather than person.

This paper is concerned with the political and ethical aspects of the development of family planning for the underprivileged and with the use of the underprivileged as subjects in clinical trials of new contraceptive technology. In the past decade family planning has evolved from a component of corporate philanthropy to a major U.S. government policy. The diffusion of family planning has been aided by its apparent “depoliticization” and “internationalization.” Differences of sex, race, nationality and class between researchers and subjects suggest ethical shortcomings in the clinical investigation of new contraceptive technology. The further diffusion of family planning depends partly on developing more acceptable methods and partly on developing new methods of dissemination. Various public opinion campaigns and incentive schemes designed to increase the acceptance of family planning by the underprivileged represent a move from voluntarism toward coercion. It is unfortunate that the development of the potentially liberating practice of family planning has been accompanied by these exploitative phenomena.

Any enquiry into Ethics must presuppose at least three very important and possibly awkward assumptions, awkward from the point of view of the methodological and even metaphysical problems raised. It must presuppose that it enquires into something, that what it enquires into has a certain definite and circumscribed meaning of its own and that this meaning though not necessarily definable in exact terms is describable and communicable. The first assumption expanded postulates that in the course of our general experience we come upon certain particulars which may be termed moral experience. That is, some judgments (which at least at first blush and prior to any further analysis which might reduce them to other categories) appear to be specifically moral are in fact and habitually pronounced by men. The prototype of these judgments are propositions of the type: "this is good", "this is right", "this is bad", "this is wrong". The second assumption demands that these propositions are not meaningless, that in pronouncing "this is right", "this is good" men do refer to and try to imply something. The exact nature of this something and its degree of reality and objectivity are not defined by the assumption. The third assumption demands that such judgments besides referring to something be communicable. That is, that one man may understand in the most general way what another man wishes to signify when pronouncing "this is good", "this is right", whether he agree to it or not, whether he take this judgment to imply the same principles, and whatever his justification of or opposition to such judgments may be. In spite of these qualifications it might appear that too much has been assumed to begin with, since, when more fully expounded, the three presuppositions may be seen to comprise the whole of Ethics: determine its subject matter, define its laws and provide the grounds of its validity. On the other hand it seems to me that no Ethical enquiry would be possible at all unless these three assumptions were made. For if there were nothing for us to examine, we would not come up against moral judgments at all; if they defined nothing, we should not know that they were moral judgments; and if their reference were not understood at least in a general way and in principle by other men, how could we talk about them at all, let alone enquire into their nature? So that these three suppositions appear to form a sort of irreducible minimum of hypothesis which any enquiry into ethics has to assume in order to be possible at all. Again, though these three suppositions are made and used without proof, some subsequent discussion on their meaning and implication may possibly be of help in clarifying their nature, the extent of their import and the manner of their validity. It may also furnish us with some reasons and grounds for their vindication in retrospect. I shall try not to make use of any other unproved assumption beyond these three and what may be directly inferred from them as a basis for the argument in this paper. Should any other fundamental and additional assumption have been employed, it was used unconsciously and the validity of the argument will be affected accordingly.

Summary This paper is concerned with the social scientific aspects of urinalysis procedures in the detection of heroin use. Data on attitudes toward urinalysis and subject behavior in regard to the test were derived from interviews with 53 former addicts who were subject to urinalysis as part of their release requirements from a federal commitment program. The study results indicate that a great deal of anxiety is associated with urinalysis both for the former addicts and the supervisory staff. Information is also provided on the procedures used by the former addicts to subvert the test. The accuracy of urinalysis tests under field conditions is questioned.