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William E. Cox, Joseph H. Sherrard, Christopher D. Gaw Supported in part by U.S. Geological Survey, Dept. of Interior, as authorized by the Water Resources Research Act of 1984

by William E. Cox and William R. Walker

William E. Cox, Lorraine M. Herson

William E. Cox & Keith A. Argow Project A-073-VA

William E. Cox ... [et al.]

The drought of summer 1977 emphasized the potential impact of water supply problems facing southeastern Virginia in the future. However, long before last summer, numerous local, state, and federal planning activities were underway to assess future water demands and to propose alternative solutions to meeting those demands. As a contribution to this planning and decision making process, a study was undertaken at Virginia Tech to assess the institutional impediments to implementation of the various proposed solutions and to document the costs of alternative solutions. Detailed findings will be available before mid-1978. This abbreviated preliminary report suggests that two limited-capacity water sources are potentially feasible interim water supply alternatives and should be considered in the planning process along with other alternatives for the region. by William B. Anderson, William E. Cox, and Leonard A. Shabman

William E. Cox (Department of Civil Engineering, VPI & SU), Kurt S. Patrizi (Ohio Environmental Protection Agency) The work upon which this report is based was supported in part by funds provided by the United States Department of the Interior. " Project B-095-VA"

by William E. Cox and Leonard A Shabman

William R. Walker, William E. Cox Project B-025-VA

William E. Cox, Leonard A. Shabman Project S-003-83

by William E. Cox

by William R. Walker and William E. Cox A condensation, in draft form, of the findings and recommendations of a long-term study of the institutional structure of water resources management in Virginia.

The general purpose of this study is the examination of the institutional framework for ground water management, with specific consideration given to Virginia as a case study. The following objectives are encompassed within the general goal of institutional evaluation: (1) identification of the physical determinants of institutional structure, (2) description of current management institutions in Virginia, (3) comparative evaluation of the Virginia institutional framework, and (4) development of institutional guidelines of general applicability and specific recommendations for Virginia. The principal physical characteristic of ground water that determines institutional requirements for management is the dependence of the resource on a broad range of natural processes and the resulting propensity toward a variety of externalities. These external effects exist among individual water uses and also involve a variety of land use practices, indicating the need for a management framework with the capability for integration of a broad scope of considerations. The oldest institutional framework for ground water decision-making consists of private rights that define the limits of individual action affecting the resource. Private rights are significant with regard to withdrawal of ground water, use of land that affects the resource, and use of aquifer storage space through artificial recharge operations. Development of rights in these areas has proceeded at varying rates among the states and has reached differing results, but private rights in general have been relatively ineffective in restraining excessive pumping and other activities adversely affecting the resource. The institutional framework for ground water management also encompasses a variety of statutory laws and programs involving all levels of government, Primary responsibilities of the federal government consist of quality protection and data collection. Developing federal planning procedures have a potentially significant impact on ground water management. In Virginia, state law establishes an administrative ground water allocation system for application within specially designated districts. The state also regulates a number of activities that threaten ground water quality and carries out a data collection and management program. The primary authority of the local level of government concerning ground water is land use control. The development of guidelines for improved ground water management institutions involves a variety of issues. One of the most basic consists of the dgree of governmental involvement and the division of responsibilities among the levels of government. Due to the traditional inability of private control measures to constrain ground water externalities and the need for mechanisms to provide for planning and other non-regulatory management functions, direct governmental involvement and control appear inevitable ag burdens placed on the resource increase, With regard to vesting of governmental authority, considerations of managerial capabilities and perspectives indicate that the state level of government should exercise primary authority. Other issues addressed in the general guidelines and the Virginia recommendations include the feasibility of an allocation program applicable solely to ground water, guidelines for determination of "beneficial use," scope of exemptions from controls, criteria for permit issuance, permit duration, and the scope and administrative structure of ground water quality protection programs. Ph. D.

The flow velocity in a river is three-dimensional (3D), turbulent, and varies in time and space. Capturing this variability in field measurements to support studies of river processes has proven particularly challenging. While originally developed to measure discharge, boat-mounted acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCP) are increasingly used in field studies to quantify flow features including mean velocity, boundary shear stress, and sediment motion. Two survey procedures are typically employed with an ADCP. Moving-vessel (MV) measurements provide spatially-rich velocity data while temporally-rich data are obtained with fixed-vessel (FV) procedures. Given the relative ease of MV measurements, recent work has focused on developing MV procedures that produce comparable results to FV measurements. At the present, results of this work are inconclusive. Additionally, there is a lack of reported data and procedures for FV measurements. This work seeks to develop techniques to present 3D velocity data obtained in natural rivers in a unified framework. This framework is based on a stream-fitted coordinate system defined by the flow direction at a cross section and allows for 3D velocity to be decomposed into streamwise, spanwise, and vertical components. Procedures are developed to assure that the velocity profiles measured at fixed locations are (1) not negatively impacted by the inevitable motion of the ADCP, (2) statistically stationary, and (3) of sufficient record length to determine the mean velocity. The coordinate system allows time-averaged velocity from FV procedures to be compared with spatially-averaged velocity from MV vessels. Significant differences are found between the two survey procedures, particularly for secondary velocity components. Ultimately, integrating results of the two survey procedures leads to an improved representation of the mean flow field. The techniques are applied to data obtained on a study reach on the lower Roanoke River, located in eastern North Carolina. Ph. D.

Tidal energy is a clean, sustainable, reliable, predictable source of energy. Recent developments in underwater turbines have made harvesting tidal energy feasible. Determining the power potential available in a given water body can be accomplished by using numerical hydraulic models to predict the flow velocity at a location of interest. The East River in Manhattan has been used here in an effort to develop a modeling methodology for assessing the power potential of a site. Two two-dimensional CFD models, FESWMS and TUFLOW, as well as one one-dimensional model, HEC-RAS, are used to analyze flows in the East River. Comparisons are made between the models and TUFLOW proves to best represent flows in the East River. HEC-RAS provides accurate results; however, the one-dimensional results lack the necessary detail of a two-dimensional model. FESWMS cannot produce results that mimic actual flow conditions in the East River. Using the TUFLOW model, power and energy estimates are made. These estimates show that a two-dimensional model, such as TUFLOW, can be a great tool for engineers and planners developing tidal energy projects. Using the results of this work, a methodology is developed to assess power potential at other sites using publicly available data. Master of Science

Remediation of contaminated groundwater remains a high-priority national goal in the United States. Water is essential to life, and new sources of water are needed for an expanding population. Groundwater remediation remains a significant technical challenge despite decades of research into this field. New approaches are needed to address the most severely-polluted aquifers, and cost-effective solutions are required to meet remediation objectives that protect human health and the environment. Source reduction combined with Monitored Natural Attenuation (MNA) is a remediation strategy whereby the source of contamination is aggressively treated or removed and the residual groundwater plume depletes due to natural processes in the subsurface. The USEPA requires long-term performance monitoring of groundwater at MNA sites over the remediation timeframe, which often takes decades to complete. Presently, computational tools are lacking to adequately integrate source remediation with economic models. Furthermore, no framework has been developed to highlight the tradeoff between the degree of remediation versus the level of benefit within a cost structure. Using the Natural Attenuation Software (NAS) package developed at Virginia Tech, a set of formulae have been developed for calculating the TOR for petroleum-contaminated aquifers (specifically tracking benzene and MTBE) through statistical techniques. With the knowledge of source area residual saturation, groundwater velocity, and contaminant plume source length, the time to remediate a site contaminated with either benzene or MTBE can be determined across a range of regulatory maximum contaminant levels. After developing formulae for TOR, an integrated and interactive decision tool for framing the decision analysis component of the remediation problem was developed. While MNA can be a stand-alone groundwater remediation technology, significant benefits may be realized by layering a more traditional source zone remedial technique with MNA. Excavation and soil vapor extraction when applied to the front end of a remedial action plan can decrease the amount of time to remediation and while generally more expensive than an MNA-only approach, may accrue long-term economic advantages that would otherwise be foregone. The value of these research components can be realized within the engineering and science communities, as well as through government, business and industry, and communities where groundwater contamination and remediation are of issue. Together, these tools constitute the Sâ ªEâ ªEâ ªPâ ªAGE paradigm, founded upon the concept of sound science for an environmental engineering, effectual economics, and public policy agenda. The TOR formulation simplifies the inputs necessary to determine the number of years that an MNA strategy will require before project closure and thus reduces the specialized skills and training required to perform a numerical analysis that for one set of conditions could require many hours of simulation time. The economic decision tool, that utilizes a life cycle model to evaluate a set of feasible alternatives, highlights the tradeoffs between time and economics can be realized over the lifetime of the remedial project. Ph. D.

There are hundreds of existing dams within the State of Virginia, and even thousands more specifically within the United States. A large portion of these dams do not meet the current safety standard of passing the Probable Maximum Flood. Likewise, many of the dams have reached or surpassed the original design lives, and are in need of rehabilitation. A standard protocol will assist dam owners in completing a dam rehabilitation analysis. The protocol provides the methods to complete the hydrologic, hydraulic, and economic analysis. Additionally, alternative augmentation techniques are discussed including the integration of GIS applications and linear programming optimization techniques. The standard protocol and alternative techniques are applied to a case study. The case study includes a set of flood control dams located in the headwaters of the South River watershed in Augusta County, VA. The downstream impacts of the flood control dams on the city of Waynesboro are demonstrated through the hydrologic and hydraulic analysis. Master of Science

Municipal water suppliers are increasingly faced with implementing programs to address temporary water shortages in the United States. Having reliable estimates for the effectiveness of these programs will help in water supply planning. This dissertation estimates the reductions in residential water-use for voluntary and mandatory water-use restrictions used in Virginia during the 2002 drought. These restrictions were evaluated using both a conventional approach (single-dummy variable for each) and non-conventional approach where program intensity was accounted for. Program intensity was measured by information dissemination for voluntary restrictions, and by information dissemination and enforcement efforts for mandatory restrictions. An unbalanced panel with data from 21 municipal water suppliers was used in the analysis. Under the conventional approach, voluntary restrictions had no significant effect on water-use and mandatory restrictions showed a small to moderate effect. However, program intensity was found to have a significant influence on the magnitude of the water-use reductions in the non-conventional approach. These reductions ranged from 0-7% for voluntary restrictions, and from 0-22% for mandatory restrictions. Moreover, these reductions followed a pattern of increasing program effectiveness with higher levels of information and enforcement. This result indicates that water supply planners need to give considerable attention to the manner in which drought management programs are implemented. Price was also found to have an important effect on residential water-use. A moderate price increase of $3 per 1000 gallons would be expected to reduce water-use by almost 15%. Thus combining mandatory restrictions (implemented at high intensity) with a moderate to high price increase could result in water-use savings approaching 40% based on estimates from this analysis. Other important findings included: a) consumers were responding to a mix of pure marginal price and fixed fees/previous block rates, b) apartment accounts were found to be included in most of the localities residential data and had a significant impact on water-use, and c) the income parameter was measuring more than a pure income effect. Ph. D.

Determining safe yield of an existing water supply is a basic aspect of water supply planning. Where water is withdrawn from a river directly without any storage, the withdrawal is constrained by the worst drought flow in the river. There is no flexibility for operational adjustments other than implementing conservation measures. Where there is a storage reservoir, yields higher than the flow in the source stream can be maintained for a period of time by releasing the water in storage. The determination of safe yield in this situation requires elaborate computation. This thesis presents a synthesis of methods of drought flow analysis and yield estimation. The yield depends on both the magnitude of the deficit and its temporal distribution. A new Markov chain analysis for assessing frequencies of annual flows is proposed. The Markov chain results compare very well with the empirical data analysis. Another advantage of the Markov chain analysis is that both high and low flows are considered simultaneously; no separate analyses for the lower and upper tails of the distribution are necessary. The temporal distribution of drought flows is considered with the aid of the generalized bootstrap method, time series analysis, and cluster sequencing of worsening droughts called Waitt's procedure. The methods are applied to drought inflows for three different water supply reservoirs in Spotsylvania County, Virginia, and different yield estimates are obtained. Master of Science

The Rappahannock River Basin Commission is undergoing a collaborative water supply planning process for Virginia's Rappahannock River Basin. Participants in the planning process have indicated an interest in technical information about the possible impact conservation programs may have on reducing residential water demand. The potential influence of conservation programs is identified through a literature synthesis and a statistical analysis of residential water demand for a locality within the basin (Stafford County). In the literature synthesis, conservation programs are classified as voluntary or mandatory. Voluntary programs utilize financial incentives (such as water pricing and rebates) or educational incentives (such as radio ads and bill inserts) to encourage conservation, and mandatory programs utilize regulatory incentives (such as plumbing standards and bans on outdoor water use). The water demand statistical model was estimated to more specifically identify how Stafford residential water customers respond to water pricing/rate structure changes (financial incentives), imposition of federal regulations on plumbing standards (regulatory incentives), and a voluntary conservation program utilizing educational incentives. The results indicate that while many studies have found residential customers are responsive to price changes, Stafford residential water users have not significantly changed their water demand in response to price/rate structure changes. Previous literature also suggests federal plumbing standards potentially have a significant impact on water demand. The influence of new plumbing standards in the Stafford demand model was inconclusive and warrants further analysis. Consistent with the literature, voluntary conservation programs utilizing educational incentives alone did not substantially alter residential water demand in Stafford County. Master of Science

This dissertation develops a new distributed split-flow stormwater management strategy and compares its site design feasibility and construction cost to existing stormwater management methods. The purpose of the split-flow strategy is to manage stormwater by preserving predevelopment flows in terms of rate, quality, frequency, duration and volume. This strategy emulates the predevelopment hydrology: it retains and infiltrates additional runoff volume created by development by using bioretention and paired weirs as proportional flow splitters connected to small infiltration facilities distributed throughout a site. Results show that 1) the distributed split-flow stormwater management strategy can provide a higher level of environmental protection at comparable construction cost to existing detention-based methods, 2) split-flow systems are less expensive to construct than current truncated hydrograph-based bioretention and infiltration systems and 3) non-point source water pollution-reduction objectives, currently achieved with either detention with first flush or comparable bioretention and infiltration systems, could be achieved in a more cost-effective manner using distributed split-flow stormwater management strategy. Ph. D.

Of the factors that determine development potential in a given geographic area, the availability of water for residential, commercial, and industrial purposes is a primary indication of prospective growth. Governmental bodies at the regional, state and federal levels often need to identify water supply availability in order to identify growth potential. To address this need, a procedure for the preliminary assessment of water supply availability has been developed that can potentially be applied to any geographic area in the United States. The procedure uses the USGS demand cataloging unit as the basic planning area, with supply estimates from streamflow parameters at USGS gage locations and demand estimates from USGS demand reports. By comparing known supply and demand estimates in a base year, an overview of water supply availability in the region can be determined. With supply and demand data in a base year, projections of future water supply availability can then be made. Detailed projection of future water demand must account for changes in the amount of water use activities and the rates of water use within those activities, but a simplified procedure is applied here. Total offstream water use is averaged over the population in the base year to determine per-capita offstream use, which is assumed to remain constant in the future in this preliminary assessment procedure. Population is then projected and demand is forecast as a function of the projected population. The supply quantity is projected assuming each flow parameter derived from the historical record will remain constant in the future year. By comparing projected supply and demand estimates, water supply availability in future years can be anticipated in the planning area. Master of Science

This study discusses the monitoring requirements of an effluent credit trading system that allows point source discharges to purchase effluent reductions by financing agricultural nonpoint source best management practices. It describes the results of a national survey of existing trading programs that assessed how each program determines nonpoint source baseline pollutant discharges, pollutant reductions attributable to best management practices, verification of best management practice(s) installation and maintenance activities, and how often this verification is performed. This study surveyed the nonpoint source discharge monitoring programs of several of the successful effluent credit trading systems in the U.S. It documents and discusses specific characteristics of nonpoint source pollutant discharge monitoring strategies. Finally, this thesis compares trading program discharge monitoring characteristics to the current Virginia Cost-Share nonpoint source monitoring program. The goal of this study is to recommend elements of a nonpoint source discharge monitoring strategy to the Commonwealth of Virginia that can be used in a trading program of its own. The study shows that the majority of existing effluent credit trading programs use watershed models and land use evaluation algorithms to indirectly monitor nonpoint source pollutant discharges on a watershed basis rather than relying on empirical sampling and analysis activities for individual farms of fields. Monitoring takes a variety of forms to provide the diverse information necessary to indirectly determine nonpoint source discharges. Most trading programs monitoring strategies are no more comprehensive than agricultural cost-share programs even though many stakeholders believe that a trading program's monitoring activities should be exact enough to determine contributions from individual nonpoint sources to support the payments for individual activities. This objection is a barrier to the acceptance of trading programs by the public. A Virginia trading program must enhance its agricultural best management practice cost-share program monitoring practices to track nonpoint source discharges from individual farms or fields to be accepted and successful. Master of Engineering

Established low-density land use development patterns are characterized by expansive urbanization of the landscape. Concurrent effects associated with this present development pattern are declining existing urbanized areas, increasing conversion of open space, and high public service and infrastructure costs. Maryland's adoption of the Smart Growth legislative initiatives marks a potential advancement in the continuing evolution of government policies and programs designed to reduce inefficiencies by planning and managing growth at the state level. The Smart Growth programs are designed to augment, and work in concert with, previously implemented state growth management strategies, including local water and sewer and comprehensive planning. Maryland's ability to effectively direct and control growth in a desirable manner depends on the integrity and support of each of these planning program elements. This thesis recognizes the considerable influence that the provision of water and sewer services exerts on developing urban growth patterns and the increased relevance of water and sewer planning with respect to Smart Growth legislation. Evaluative research, designed to measure water and sewer plan regulatory conformance, demonstrates that locally adopted water and sewer plans exhibit widespread deficiencies in terms of state agency regulatory requirements. The revealed extent and prevalence of water and sewer plan inadequacies indicate that these documents are incapable of providing state administrators the information necessary to accurately determine existing and planned municipal sewer service, as anticipated by the legislation. The fact that legislation requires state agency approval of water and sewer plans prior to their adoption and that adopted plans exhibit deficiencies suggests problems associated with the current plan approval process. This thesis reviews the institutional procedures by which water and sewer plans are developed and approved in order to illustrate formal and informal organizational processes operable to water and sewer plan development. In addition, this thesis offers recommendations designed to enhance the current approval process, so as to lead to the development of effective water and sewer plans and facilitate successful implementation of related Smart Growth programs. Master of Urban and Regional Planning

While the idea of critical break rate of water distribution pipeline (defined as the break rate after which it is no longer economical to continuously repair) has been accepted in the literature and among the practicing engineers, the formula to obtain the critical break rate has remained elusive. In this dissertation, an equation for identifying the threshold break rate of a pipe is developed. The threshold break rate equation gives a rule of thumb for pipe replacement decision. Input parameters to obtain the threshold break rate of a pipe are repair and replacement costs, interest rate, and the length of the pipe. In addition, a methodology that enables the use of threshold break rate with the failure intensity and hazard functions is developed. The methodology is drawn by considering the relationships of the definitions of the threshold break rate with intensity and hazard functions in the context of a repairable system's failure process modeling. As a result, the newly developed threshold break rate equation can be coupled with any appropriate intensity and hazard function to obtain economically optimal replacement time of a pipe. Also, practical usage of the threshold break rate is demonstrated with a number of numerical examples. Design aids in the form of charts and tables are provided. The threshold break rate can be easily obtained either graphically or with the aid of the tables. The methodology that links the threshold break rate and failure rate (intensity and hazard) functions is extended to accommodate stress multiplying environmental factors in the form of the proportional intensity and hazards model. The two models consist of an age dependent failure rate function and a covariate structure. They are applied to a case study area pipe system to obtain optimal replacement times for individual pipes in the system. As a result, important hazard characteristics of water distribution pipes are drawn, and implications on the optimal replacement analysis are discussed. A pipe break prediction model is also developed in this research. The model spans the space between the linear and exponential break trends. The model is applied to the case study area pipe system with various cost options. The results from this analysis are discussed in terms of practical implementation of the replacement strategies. Ph. D.

Leaks in pipe networks cause significant problems for utilities and water users in terms of lost revenue and interrupted service. In many cities the leakage is as high as forty percent. A water audit is carried out to assess system-wide leakage. However, to detect leakage at the level of a pipeline, a physical measurement technique is generally employed. For large cities the distribution piping length amounts to a few thousand miles. Therefore, the physical measurements can become tedious and expensive. In this thesis it is assumed that a spatial distribution of leakage can be estimated at nodes based on a water audit bookkeeping scheme. A mathematical formulation consisting of continuity, energy (headloss), pressure-dependent demands and/or leakage, and flow direction preservation equations are utilized to distribute demand flows and leakage among pipes. The leakage is attributed to the formation of corrosion holes. Based upon the extent of corrosion, the leakage flow arriving at a particular node is apportioned among all pipes that are converging at that node. Therefore, the formulation presented in this thesis captures the two essential elements behind leakage, namely, pressure driven flow distribution and the vulnerability of pipes to corrosion. The proposed formulation allows utilities to be more proactive in identifying leakage prone districts within the water distribution system. An understanding of the pressure-dependent leakage in the system is helpful when performing a water audit and in developing strategies for leak repair programs. Restoring the full capacity of the water distribution system will greatly increase the reliability of the system, thereby benefiting local utilities and water users. Master of Science

A numerical model for subsurface solute transport is developed and applied to a contaminated field site. The model is capable of depicting multiple species transport in a three-dimensional, anisotropic, heterogeneous domain as influenced by advection, dispersion, adsorption, and biodegradation. Various hydrocarbon contaminants are simulated as electron donors for microbial growth, with electron acceptors utilized in the following sequence: oxygen, nitrate, Mn(IV), Fe(III), sulfate, and CO₂. In addition, the model accounts for products of biodegradation such as Mn (II), Fe(II), H₂S, and CH₄. Biodegradation of each hydrocarbon substrate follows Monod kinetics, modified to include the effects of electron acceptor and nutrient availability. Inhibition functions permit any electron acceptor to inhibit utilization of all other electron acceptors that provide less Gibbs free energy to the microbes. The model assumes that Fe(III) and Mn(IV) occur as solid phase ions, while the other electron acceptors are dissolved in the aqueous phase. Microbial biomass is simulated as independent groups of heterotrophic bacteria that exist as scattered microcolonies attached to the porous medium. Diffusional limitations to microbial growth are assumed to be negligible. In order to verify the accuracy of the computer code, the model was applied to simple, hypothetical test cases, and the results were compared to analytical solutions. In addition, a sensitivity analysis showed that variations in model inputs caused logical changes in output. Finally, the capabilities of the model were tested by comparing model output to observed concentrations of hydrocarbons, electron acceptors, and endproducts at a leaking UST site. The model was calibrated using historical site data, and predictive capabilities of the model were tested against subsequent sets of field data. The model was used to examine the effect of porous media heterogeneities on contaminant transport and biodegradation. The turning bands method was used to produce hypothetical, yet realistic heterogeneous fields describing hydraulic conductivity, initial biomass concentration, and the maximum rate of substrate utilization. When the available electron acceptor concentrations were small compared to the hydrocarbon concentration, the overall rate of hydrocarbon mass loss increased with time, even as hydrocarbon concentrations decreased. This trend is the opposite of what would be predicted by a first order decay model. Ph. D.

Multijurisdictional agreements among local and regional authorities have emerged as an effective way to manage Virginia’s watersheds. These agreements generally result in the development of goals and objectives for the watershed environment, and the implementation of various strategies designed to achieve these goals. Successful agreements often result in stabilized or improved water quality in the region. The Environmental Protection Agency has developed the Watershed Protection Approach and recommended it to manage water quality. While accepted, the Approach has not been well demonstrated in practice. Ten Virginia case studies are conducted to determine (1) if the Approach is represented in the program components and (2) if the components are effective in achieving program objectives. The case studies were developed through document review and interviews with program personnel, including local and regional agencies and non-governmental organizations. Critical components of these multijurisdictional approaches are identified and compiled to assist other regions and localities in their watershed management programs. The EPA Approach identifies four relevant watershed management features; however, these are general and do not describe nor clarify its potential implementation. This thesis four categories corresponding to critical components of watershed management programs identified in the case studies, which illustrate and expand on EPA’s Approach, particularly its implementation: institutional framework and planning, stakeholder involvement, implementation strategies, and monitoring. These case studies demonstrate that regional policies and plans provide the necessary institutional framework; that participation of key stakeholders, especially those involved in implementation is critical in plan development; that local implementation land-use strategies including both regulatory and non-regulatory land-use measures, and structural and non-structural land practices, are most effective in achieving regional watershed management objectives; and that monitoring is needed to measure effectiveness and can effectively engage non-governmental groups and citizen volunteers. Master of Urban and Regional Planning

A gravel-bed stream's grain size distribution plays an important role in determining a river's depth, sediment transport rates, and stream bed stability as well as the survival rates of mussels and salmonids. Unfortunately, the material found in gravel-bed rivers exhibits vertical stratification as well as spatial variation in the horizontal direction and is difficult to sample. Previous research has largely dealt with the ability of grid, areal, and bulk sampling techniques to sample a single spot within a river. Little has been done in characterizing an entire river reach. Of the methods suggested, none is adequate because they are either inherently biased or are incapable of describing the spatial variations within a sampled region. The present research proposes a method that overcomes these problems. It shows that a single large grid sample, or composite grid sample, can be used to obtain an unbiased estimate of an area's overall grain size distribution at a known accuracy level. It then suggests that the arithmetic mean is a suitable parameter to characterize the coarseness of individual sediment deposits within a sampled area. Thus, by recording the size and location of each stone taken in the composite grid sample one can use statistical hypothesis testing to systematically analyze local means throughout the sampled area and locate sediment boundaries. Once the boundaries are located, stones from the composite grid sample falling within the boundaries of a particular deposit can be analyzed as separate grid samples representative of the individual deposits present and describe the local variability. Master of Science

The existence of comprehensive groundwater protection programs on the federal, state, and local levels was investigated. Because of the unique characteristics of aquifers and contamination sources, local groundwater protection programs were found to be the most comprehensive; however, it was discovered that no universally accepted method existed to measure their effectiveness. An evaluation method was developed to determine local groundwater protection program effectiveness, and the method was applied in two case studies, one urban and one rural. The urban program, developed in Dayton, Ohio, was found to be a comprehensive and effectively implemented program; the rural program, developed in Clarke County, Virginia, was found to be a comprehensive program, but lacked full implementation. The experience gained in the case studies was used to revise the format of the evaluation method, and draw conclusions concerning the usefulness of the method. A description of the evaluation method, the case studies, and all related data collection are included. Master of Science

The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) declared the Federal government's commitment to comprehensive environmental protection. The cutting-edge of NEPA is its requirement for including an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for all major Federal actions significantly affecting the environment. Opinions about the effectiveness of NEPA's EIS requirement range along a continuum. On one extreme are those who view the NEPA process as essentially procedural and overshadowed by other environmental legislation which provide explicit standards of environmental protection for specific environmental values. On the other extreme are those who believe that NEPA provides substantive, comprehensive, and holistic environmental protection of all environmental values. Most of the research on NEPA and its EIS reqUirement has revolved around the act's procedural and substantive mandates. However, despite the proliferation of non-NEPA environmental legislation mandating the protection of such environmental values as air and water quality, land use, and wildlife and endangered species, very little attention has been paid to the role of the mandates and requirements of these legislation in the EIS process. This research effort characterizes the role of NEPA's EIS process in light of the mandates and requirements of this body of non-NEPA legislation to determine the extent to which it addresses the substance of environmental impact evaluation. Specifically, this research focuses on the following questions: • Is the body of non-NEPA legislation sufficiently comprehensive to cover the entire spectrum of environmental values making NEPA's EIS requirement redundant? • Does NEPA enhance the avenues for public participation in government decision-making provided by non-NEPA legislation? • Does NEPA address the impacts of large scale projects, public programs and policy decisions, and cumulative impacts in a more comprehensive manner than non-NEPA legislation? • Does NEPA enhance coordination and integration among Federal agencies in ensuring that environmental issues are addressed comprehensively? The study focuses on the civil works program of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps). As such, all conclusions are applicable only to the Corps and are not generalized to other agencies to which NEPA's requirements apply. The study involved a literature review on the role of NEPA in Federal agency planning and decision-making and the development of five research hypotheses with respect to the questions outlined earlier. These hypotheses were then evaluated through a critical review of NEPA and of the role of NEPA and other legislation in Corps activities, and a case-study of a Corps-directed EIS of the Metropolitan Denver Water Supply System. This research effort concluded that there is a relative lack of redundence among the environmental policy and requirement provisions of NEPA and those of non-NEPA legislation—what exists is a complementary, albeit tenuous relationship. Complementary, because in theory and intent: • NEPA proclaims a national policy for all environmental values while specific legislation focus only on specific environmental values; • NEPA does not contain specific standards or requirements but draws from those contained in other legislation; • in the absence of NEPA, assessments of a project's impacts to specific environmental values would be disjointed and incomplete; • the antagonistic and synergistic impacts to various values preclude individualized assessments—such impacts may not be fully addressed in the absence of NEPA; and • NEPA's public participation mechanisms as well as its requirements to ensure coordination among agencies are necessary and complementary to the focused provisions of other legislation. Tenuous, because this complementary intent has not been fully realized in practice. While the intent of NEPA was to ensure the complete and comprehensive alignment of NEPA and non-NEPA legislation, the realities of NEPA’s implementation have brought to light a variety of obstacles. These include: • inadequate guidance on NEPA compliance with other legislation; • inadequate integration among agency planning procedures and procedures for compliance with the requirements of various legislation, and inadequate inter-agency integration mechanisms; • redundant pubic participation procedures; and • a general lack of internalization in Federal agencies of the true intent of NEPA’s national policy declaration. Recommendations to surmount these obstacles include among others: developing comprehensive guidance on NEPA compliance with other legislation; ensuring that agencies’ compliance procedures are standardized and consistent with one another; developing processes whereby NEPA's public participation procedures subsume those of other legislation; and creating a fully represented Federal task force to develop and recommend detailed options for streamlining NEPA implementation. Ph. D.

Recent evidence of widespread environmental degradation and global changes resulting from human activities have revived a debate about the sustainability of the progress of human welfare that began at least 200 years ago. In this renewed debate, the seriousness and causes of environmental degradation are subject to widely divergent interpretations. There are many conceivable sustainable futures; the most important differences among them are not technical but political and ideological. The practice of environmental planning is concerned with a wide variety of contexts and situations at the human-environment interface. Because land use is at the root of many of the problems of environmental degradation (e.g., habitat destruction, air pollution, water pollution), land use planning is an appropriate focus for consideration of the role of environmental planning in sustainable development. Planning as a profession, with its inherent future orientation and focus on public values, is well situated to deal with the kinds of problems raised in the discourse regarding sustainability. Examination of mainstream land use planning practices, however, reveals a reactive, reformist incrementalism that responds to environmental degradation caused by growth, but that addresses neither its causes nor its dynamics. Mainstream land use planning approaches have attempted to resolve conflicts between development and environment through spatial solutions at various scales. The need to plan for ecological sustainability is difficult to reconcile with the democratic ideal of local self-determination. Many alternative approaches to land use planning for sustainable development focus on design solutions. The requirements of sustainability are not merely technical, however. There are both emancipatory possibilities and their opposite in sustainability. Implementing sustainability offers planners a number of choices. They can act as mediators, demystifyers of technical information, exposers of hidden ideological assumptions, and advocates. They can strengthen existing authority, or work towards an enlightened self-determination at the local level. Ph. D.

Groundwater contamination is a growing problem that is receiving increasing attention on the national scene. There is recognition that federal, state, and local, programs for the protection of the nation's groundwater lack coordinated, integrated policy. Consequently, much of the responsibility for groundwater protection in rural areas falls upon local elected officials and public administrators who may be ill equipped to deal with technically c01nplex issues that are becoming increasingly germane and costly for many communities. This dissertation examines a rural county in Virginia (Clarke County) noted for its progressive groundwater protection policies, with the intent of the examination to improve the knowledge base of the dynamics of the groundwater protection process in rural areas. Case study methodology, implementation theory, and ethnographic techniques are used to determine what factors and forces play the greatest role in initiating and influencing groundwater protection outcomes in a rural setting. Answers are suggested for questions such as: (1) why does Clarke County display a different attitude towards groundwater protection than many of its neighbors in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia; (2) how was Clarke County able to initiate and institute groundwater protection plans; and (3) is there a special role for the public administrator in the rural groundwater protection policy process? Ph. D.

During the early 1980s, concern over the poor quality of the nation's drinking water began to arise. Though the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) had been passed almost a decade earlier, many problems still existed. These problems included the inability of the Environmental Protection Agency to promulgate new drinking water standards and to enforce new and existing standards. To address the shortcomings of the original act, Congress passed the 1986 SDWA Amendments. This document attempts to accomplish two main goals. The first is to summarize selectively the requirements of the 1986 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Amendments as reflected in proposed and finalized drinking water regulations. The areas of coverage include proposed regulations for eight inorganic and thirty synthetic organic chemical contaminants, the Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR), and the Total Coliform Rule (TCR). In order to facilitate an understanding of the SDWA and the 1986 Amendments, a sectional analysis was provided in an appendix. The second goal of this document is to assess the economic impact of this legislation upon Virginia water facilities. In this regard, the cost of water treatment technologies whose use will likely increase as a result of the legislation have been estimated, compiled, and documented. These technologies include granular activated carbon (GAC); reverse osmosis; ion exchange; and various aeration, filtration, and disinfection technologies. Several case studies that assess and highlight the direct impacts of the 1986 SDWA Amendments upon Virginia water facilities are presented. Master of Science

Industrialization and urbanization have brought about localized demand and regional competition for water resources in parts of the eastern United States. Thus, some states have faced critical decisions concerning how to best manage their available water supplies. As fundamental public values have changed over time, public opinion concerning the way in which water supplies should be managed has changed as well, especially in recent years. Consequently, many eastern states have restructured the institutional mechanisms governing water supply management to reflect those changing values and opinions. Massachusetts is a prime example of a state where changes in publicly held values have caused a thorough restructuring of the institutional mechanisms governing water supply management. A case study examines developments that led to the current institutional mechanisms in Massachusetts. Special attention is given to the issues and values that shaped the State’s water supply policy, legislation, and regulatory programs. Master of Science

The unique characteristics of agricultural contamination of groundwater requires an innovative solution, such as the voluntary use of low-input agriculture (LIA) practices. This study was conducted to identify potential barriers to LIA adoption, analyze the effectiveness of agriculture and natural resource policies designed to remove the barriers to LIA adoption, and to determine the effectiveness of LIA practices in reducing the amount of chemicals released into the environment. A survey of Richmond County, Virginia farming operations and attitudes identified current practices, potential LIA practices for the Northern Neck region of Virginia, and perceived barriers to LIA adoption. A 15 year nonlinear mathematical programming model was used to determine optimal farming practices, among 34 low-input and conventional practices, under various agronomic and policy scenarios. Two non-point simulation models, CREAMS and GLEAMS, were used to estimate the nitrogen and chemical loadings of runoff, groundwater, and sediment; and the soil erosion from each of these scenarios. The model shows that yields, labor requirements, and variable costs, individually have a weak influence on the adoption of low-chemical and organic production activities. The price of the organic nitrogen source, poultry litter, was strongly related to the use of LIA practices. The most cost effective policy for reducing Aatrex (atrazine) contributions to groundwater was a one-third reduction in surface application of Aatrex. However, there were many tradeoffs between chemical, nitrogen, and soil contributions to runoff, percolation, and sediment. The only policies which reduced all of these factors were land retirement policies. The tax level required to promote the use of a LIA practice was too high to be politically feasible, and the use of green-manure crops would require a 100 percent annual subsidy of those crops. A proposed base flexibility program caused more intensive use of conventional chemicals because of the limited number of eligible crops. Low-input agriculture has promised reductions in chemical contamination of groundwater and runoff. This study’s results showed that although that is indeed the case, there are tradeoffs between reduced chemical contamination and nitrogen and soil losses which should be considered when examining the cost effectiveness of using LIA practices as a groundwater protection strategy. Ph. D.

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is investigating ways to improve lockage efficiency at the Marmet Locks on the Kanawha River, West Virginia. These improvements are needed to meet projected future river traffic demands. A physical effects prediction model has been developed to evaluate the changes on the river due to changes in future traffic patterns and tow configurations. The model has been verified based on the field measured data which cover a wide range of traffic conditions. The model consists of selected equations which simulate ambient velocities; wind waves; diverging waves; squat and backwater generated by the tows; and propeller jet velocities and its associated entrainment velocities. Based on the calculated velocities, concentrations of suspended sediment induced by the disturbance are estimated, at the time of disturbance and after suspended sediments have been allowed to settle. Field data on tow induced velocity changes in a back channel and a tributary are also analyzed. The effects of passing recreational boats has also been measured in the main channel. Master of Science

The objective of this thesis is to determine the effectiveness of Federal, state and local government interactions in administration of tidal wetland protection measures in Virginia. Federal protection for wetlands is authorized by the Clean Water Act [33 U.S.C.A. 1251 et seq. (1986), as amended (Supp. 1987)] and the Rivers and Harbors Act [33 U.S.C.A. 401 et seq. (1986), as amended (Supp. 1987)]. State and local authority is provided by the Virginia Wetlands Act [Va.Code Ann., sec. 62.1-13.1 et seq. (1987)]. Because of overlapping jurisdictions of the statutes, Federal, state, and local governments must interact while implementing wetland protection programs. Effective interactions between the various levels of government are important for the preservation and protection of tidal wetlands. If the three levels of government are able to efficiently administer a program that provides adequate protection of wetlands, similar programs may be applied in other areas such as non-point source pollution control. A history of the development of the wetlands protection program is presented along with a description of applicable statutes, regulations, and permitting requirements. Included is an analysis of the implementation of the wetland statutes by case studies of program operations, a comparison of decisions on applications made by the three different government agencies, and identification of impacts and future trends of the wetland protection programs. Master of Science

Edited by William E. Cox Sponsored by Water Research Institutes and Water Resources Agencies of the Southeast States.

An examination was conducted of alternative responses to the water supply situation in four cities in southeastern Virginia. Cost/benefit analyses were performed for the provision of projected levels of use and for reductions in those levels of use achieved with the use of quotas, price increases, and water saving devices. An important element of these analyses was the consideration of the costs incurred as a result of waste water treatment with different levels of water use. The levels of the principal types of water use were estimated for each city. This provided a basis for the projection of water demand curves necessary for estimating the value of water. Optimal schedules for the development of additional water sources were derived through the examination of water demand, relative to the costs of operating and expanding water supply and waste water. treatment facilities. Ph. D.

In the coalfields of Southwest Virginia, Iongwall technology accounts for an increasing proportion of underground coal mine production. lt is a highly productive, capital intensive method that provides a degree of mine safety greater than conventional methods. However, subsidence caused by Iongwall mining has been blamed for, among other things, damaging wells, springs, and streams above the mines. Surface landowners whose water supplies are affected by Iongwall mines may negotiate with mining companies for compensation, or they can seek redress in the courts. At the same time, the U.S. Surface Mine Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) provides a framework for regulation of the environmental effects of coal mining, including hydrologic effects. The Department of Mines, Minerals, and Energy, Division of Mined Land Reclamation (DMLR) is responsible for implementation of Virginia’s primacy program under SMCRA. This research has assessed the potential of Iongwall mining to damage the groundwater and surface water resources In Southwest Virginia; and examined whether existing laws and regulations, as implemented, provide an adequate and appropriate level of protection to both water property rights and the environment. Methods included review of published and ongoing literature on effects of underground coal mining on hydrologic systems and methods of mitigation; review of mining permits and complaint investigations on file at DMLR; review of court case decisions involving mining effects on groundwater and surface water; review of regulatory documents from other states active in Iongwall mining and the Federal Office of Surface Mining (OSM); and interviews with coal company personnel, DMLR and OSM officials, researchers, and regulatory officials in other states. Review of both DMLR complaint investigations and published reports of numerous hydrologic investigations indicate that longwall mining is likely to alter the hydrologic regime in the vicinity of the mine. The knowledge base for regulation of hydrologic impacts has been inadequate but is being improved in Virginia. Both DMLR and some coal companies recognize the need for more and better data, and are taking steps to develop the requisite data and models. Regulatory personnel in Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Kentucky have expressed recognition of similar data deficiencies in their states. At least one state, Ohio, has dealt with the problem of water rights by enacting legislation that assigns liability for replacing damaged water supplies to the mining companies. West Virginia, through its regulatory program, also requires water replacement. Recommendations are offered that have as their main objective the reduction of uncertainty about the effects of longwall mining and about compensation of surface owners for damage to water supplies. Master of Urban and Regional Planning incomplete_metadata

Fifteen curbside recycling programs in the United States, from communities representing a variety of economic, geographic and political situations, were reviewed in this study. Case studies were analyzed and discussed with respect to four areas of interest to program planners: administration, operations, promotion and evaluation. No objective rating of the programs was attempted, but approaches were reviewed with respect to their ability to satisfy the goals of the programs. Comparisons of participation rates, waste diversion rates, and costs were used cautiously because of the inconsistencies in how the data were developed from program to program. Administrative approaches found in the case studies included: (a) complete ownership of the collection and processing system by municipalities; (b) contracted service by private waste management firms; (c) contracted or subsidized service by non-profit organizations; and (d) combinations of municipal, private, and non-profit services. Operational systems were examined with respect to the effectiveness of the service in stimulating participation, given the practical, political, and budgetary constraints. Variables of operation are closely related and include: (a) which materials are collected; (b) the degree of materials separation required; (c) the type of collection vehicle(s) used; (d) collection frequency and coincidence with garbage collection; (e) the provision of in home containers; and (t) the extent of post-collection materials processing. Four categories of promotional techniques used in curbside recycling programs were discussed: (a) publicity and education; (b) personal contact; (c) economic incentives; and (d) ordinances mandating source-separation. The impacts of these techniques on participation in the case study programs were discussed. Techniques for evaluating the efficacy of curbside recycling programs were also discussed. Participation rates, waste diversion rates, and cost were reviewed with respect to current usage and recommendations were made for increasing their usefulness as indicators of the success of programs or program elements. Master of Science

Technical factors, such as engineering and medical approaches, and non-technical factors, such as education and community participation, were evaluated with regard to how they affect water and sanitation programs. Benefits and limitations of each factor were assessed to determine which limitations significantly impact the effectiveness of programs. With this appreciation of technical and nontechnical factors, case studies of control methods of different diseases were evaluated. This led to recommendations of appropriate mixes of technical and non-technical services for disease control. This evaluation was utilized to develop a planning approach to effectively integrate interagency efforts for the control of multiple diseases. Master of Science

Current U.S. Army Corps of Engineers water resources planning guidance directs the planners to consider all design alternatives with economic efficiency as the primary criterion. Recent criticism of the flood loss reduction planning is directed at the Corps. One criticism is that the traditional design practices of the Corps address only large flood events. The emphasis on large flood events precludes the use of nonstructural methods, whose economically feasible range is at smaller scales. However, the advantage of having nonstructural measures available to federal water resources planners is widely recognized. This study seeks to demonstrate that nonstructural means are at a disadvantage in the Corps planning process. It examines the institutional framework that directs the planning of these projects. Using data from Corps reports, the economically feasible ranges and optimal sizes are determined for selected nonstructural measures through a series of case studies. The resulting optimal sizes are compared to those recommended in the Corps reports. The optimal sizes of the nonstructural alternatives developed for this study are smaller than the recommended levels. In the current budget climate, the implementation of flood loss reduction projects may occur more frequently with the increased use of nonstructura1 measures since they require less investment. Master of Science