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LOCATIVE ADJECTIVES – A SPECIFIC ARCHAIC FORM EXPRESSING POSSESSION IN OLD LITHUANIAN WRITINGSSummaryThe paper deals with a construction expressing possession encountered in Old Lithuanian writings. In this construction a noun in the locative forms the base to which the enclitic pronoun jis is added. In most instances the adjectives under discussion describe a place or a spatial concept but there is a possessive component of meaning in their semantic structure, too. Daukša’s Postilla offers the largest number, i. e. 16 different adjectives of this kind, most frequent of which is dangujejis. This is almost the only one that occurs in other old writings. From the geography of the most frequently used adjective dangujejis we may conclude that attributives with the locative plus jis were most used by those who employed the central variant of the written language.Competition with adjectives with suffixes and especially with the genitive of the noun is the main reason for the later disappearance of attributives with the locative plus jis. In present-day Lithuanian the adjectives under discussion constitute essentially an archaic category.

ON THE POSSESSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE VERB priklausyti ‘TO BELONG’ IN OLD LITHUANIAN WRITINGSSummaryThe paper discusses the possessive constructions with the verb priklausyti ‘to belong’ in Old Lithuanian writings. Possessive dative constructions with the verb priklausyti compete not with analogical adessive, but with allative constructions. This confirms the view that the neutralisation of allative and adessive constructions took place in the 16th–17th c. The alternation of possessive dative constructions with the preposition prieg encountered in old records is a related phenomenon. The analysis of possessive constructions indicates that in Lithuanian written records of the 16th–17th c. not only the adessive positional construction prieg + dative was used, but also the construction prieg + genitive correlating with the allative case was still used with verbs.

THE LANGUAGE OF MAŽVYDAS' WRITINGSSummaryThe native dialect of Martynas Mažvydas — the author of the first Lithuanian printed book—has not yet been established. Some investigators (A. Schleicher, V. Grinaveckis) have con­sidered him to be born in the region of Klaipėda or generally in the Dukedom of Prussia (P. Pakarklis), other scholars (K. Būga, Chr. S. Stang, J. Senkus) considered him to have come from the north-western part of the Samogitian dialect area, still others (A. Salys) — from the south-eastern part of that dialect area. However, in their investigations they all confined themselves solely to the linguistic analysis of the first Lithuanian book — Mažvydas' Catechism of 1547, while his other writings were almost totally ignored.The author of the present paper conducted a linguistic research of all Mažvydas' writings, including a better copy of the Catechism of 1547, obtained from the M. Gorky Library of Odessa and at the present time preserved at the Vilnius University Library. Dialect features of the writings were compared in great detail to the corresponding peculiarities of the present-day Lithuanian dialects and in the first place to those of the Samogitian dialects.The conclusions of the study were presented in the article published in parts in Baltistica, vols. XIII, 2, XIV, 1 — 2 and XV, 1. The following are the main conclusions of the study.Mažvydas' native dialect is to be localized in the south-western part of Southern Samogitian area; cf. the map in Baltistica XIII, 2, p. 369.The High Lithuanian dialectal characteristics appeared in the first Lithuanian book not due to Mažvydas' conscious efforts to conform to High Lithuanian (as previously many scholars were apt to assume) but owing to his being born in a dialectally mixed family: his father must have been a Samogitian, whereas his mother was a western High Lithuanian, a speaker of its northern subdialect. The analysis of Mažvydas' early writings (Baltistica XIV, 2) indicates that their dialectal features coincide with those of the writings of Vilentas who was his cousin. Later living in the Dukedom of Prussia, Mažvydas tried to adjust himself to the local West High Lithuanian dia­lect — more precisely to the dialect of Ragainė which did not differ much from Vilentas' native dialect.The interpretation of the sounds and forms of Mažvydas' works is closely connected with the establishment of his native dialect. The sequels of the article in Baltistica, XIV, 2 and XV, 1 deal with the analysis of the major phonetic, grammatical and lexical characteristics of Mažvydas' native dialect arid the elucidation of their developments in the period of over 400 years.

ON THE ETYMOLOGICAL IDENTIFICATION OF LITH. kúopa AND kaũpas SummaryThe paper deals with an etymological analysis of Lith. kúopa „crowd, throng, multitude; heap, pile etc.”, Latv. kuõpa „heap, pile; crowd etc.” and Lith. kaũpas „heap, pile”, which are supposed to stem from one and the same root. A thorough examination of these examples shows that they most likely belong to quite different roots from the etymological point of view, thus there is no basis to assume an apophony uo : au in Baltic. The vocalism uo of Lith. kúopa, Latv. kuõpa derived from Baltic ō represents e / o apophonic series. Lith. kúopa, Latv. kuõpa may be etymologically identified with the verbs Lith. kuõpti „clean; harvest, gather in; snatch, seize, grasp, grab, plunder”, Latv. kùopt „clean; apply, wait etc.”. The last two are the morphonological con­tinuants of the Baltic root *kep- (or *kap-) „take, snatch, seize, grasp” represented by Lith. kė̃p­ti, Latv. ķept, ķêpît, Lith. kàptelėti, kàpterti, kàpalioti, kapaliúoti, kópti. The vocalism au of Lith. kaũpas belongs to и apophonic series. Lith. kaũpas, OPr. Caupe- (in the river name Caupeaps) may be etymologically identified with the verb kaũpti „hill, earth up, hoe” (which in all probabi­lity is a denominative) and derived from the Baltic root *keu-p-/*ku-p- „bend, turn out(wards), become convex (while growing sour, thriving, getting in heap)” which is represented in Lith. kùpti, kupė́ti, Latv. kupt, kupêt, Lith. prisi-kiaupti, Latv. ķaũpêtiês.

LITH. čiùtnas “CLEAN, NEAT, TIDY...”, taũsti (-čia) “TO LONG, TO BE SAD, TO GRIEVE” AND THEIR COGNATESSummaryThe author argues in the paper that the lexemes čiùtnas, čiutnùs “clean, neat, tidy; frisky, agile, swift”, čiutlùs “clean, neat, tidy”, čiutė́ti (čiùta) “lie in bed, drowse, slumber”, čiūtė́ti (čiū̃ti) “sit, lie motionlessly, hide”, čiūtinti “look after carefully, spoil”, tùtinti “spoil (by too much ten­derness)”, tuténti “look after (a patient); wrap up, envelop, dress”, tautė́ti (-ė́ja) “look after, take care”, taũsti (-čia) “long, be sad, grieve”, (-sta) “grow thin, weaker, feeble, be hard-up, be in distress, want; faint, swoon, be dizzy”, пи-taũsti (-sta, -čia) “forget one's family, home, break oneself of relatives, fall out, shim”, tautà “gens, nation” (and its correspondings in other IE languages), čiū́tys “a large number”, čiū̃tė “cone”, tūta “work, misery”, Latv. tũte “energy, power, strength”, tūtars “a small heap, pile of corn, hayrick, haystack”, tutinât “wrap up, envelop, dress” etc. might be cognate and belong to the IE root *te(ǝ) — “swell, distend”.

ON THE PROBLEM OF LITHUANIAN-BYELORUSSIAN LEXICAL CONTACTSSummaryThis paper deals with some translation loans in Byelorussian from Lithuanian, namely, ten semantic loans (the type of blr. адбiты “enclosed, fenced” atmùšti “to enclose, to fence”; blr. адбiцца “coire” atsimùšti “to mate”; blr. каза́ “blemish, flaw” ožỹs, ožkà; blr. сярэ́дзiна “waist” < lith. pusiáujas etc.), eigt word-building loans (the type of blr. абiя́кi < lith. apmuštìniai (klumpės) “kind of wooden boots”; blr. акíдацца < lith. apsimèsti “to slip on”; blr. еы́стрыгаць < lith. iškir̃pti “to cut out”; blr. приты́ка priẽkaištas “reproach” etc.) and three cases of loans of morphological formant (blr. бураке́ “borshch” < lith. burókai; blr. вайлакí< “kind of felt boots, valenki” < lith. veĩlokai; blr. кру́пы “groats” < lith. kruõ­pos). The author believes the translation loans can be considered as an essential linguistic argument in favour of the hypothesis about the great role of the Baltic substratum in forming Byelorussian dialects.

CONCERNING SAMOGITIAN jeĩnis SummaryThe pronoun jeĩnis, -ė ʽhe, she’, noticed by V. Grinaveckis in a Samogitian dialect of Lithu­anian, is treated as an emphatic pronoun by the author of this paper. The pronoun originated on the basis of the epenthetic forms Acc. Sg. fem. jeĩnę and Instr. Sg. fem. jéine, used side by side with the regular dialect jeñję, jénje (= Standard Lith. Ją̃ją, ją́ja). The Nom. Sg. fem. jeĩnė (next to jeĩnę : jéine) appeared according to the pattern kárvė : karvę : kárve; the Nom. Sg. masc. jeĩnis arose (next to jeĩnė) according to the pattern medìnis : medìnė.

The paper focuses on adult interrogatives, which appear to be among the most frequent and typical ways of communicating with young children. The main objective of the investigation is to identify and compare the variety and distribution of interrogatives in Lithuanian and Russian motherese. The analysis is based on the data of a longitudinal observation of a Lithuanian girl Monika (2;0–2;8) and a Russian boy Vanja (2;0–2;8). The transcribed corpus of conversations between children and their parents was annotated for a multipurpose automatic linguistic analysis using tools of the program CHILDES (Child Language Data Exchange System, MacWhinney 1991). Despite several differences (the general number of questions, and the dominant forms of indirect correction), it can be stated that interrogatives in both Russian and Lithuanian motherese are generally used for the same conversational strategies; the communicative strategies in the two languages seem to be similar or even identical. Moreover, during the observation period, the conversational strategies in both Russian and Lithuanian motherese developed in a similar way. This calls for a general conclusion that a correlation between parental conversational strategy and the type of language can be identified.

This paper discusses the variety of languages and the level of language competence required in job advertisements in Lithuania. The research is based on the data collected from on-line and hard-copy newspapers; job advertisements under investigation include those written in Lithuanian and other languages. The main findings suggest that in on-line advertisements employers require foreign language competence more often than those in the hard-copy adverts. It has also been observed that competence of two languages is of high demand. If employers require competence of 3 languages, the order of the languages is as follows: national (Lithuanian), lingua-franca (English), and others (Russian or Polish). Lithuanian is of high importance in job advertisements as employers tend to take into consideration the level of written and spoken Lithuanian. Finally, the data have revealed that in job advertisements language knowledge is described in very abstract terms, and references to the CEFR are hardly ever observed in the collected data.

Theatrical productions are always an important aspect in the reception of any author in any country. They are instrumental in promoting the writer and his work, in bringing it closer to the ordinary readership. Particularly so in Lithuania which has a long and lively theatrical tradition of more than 400 years. The Kaunas State Theatre established in 1922 became an important centre in the cultural life of Lithuania and was the only professional theatre organization in Lithuania until 1931, which dramatized and performed Dickens’s works, among others. Stage adaptations played an important role in the reception of Dickens’s art, particularly in the inter-war period in the 1920s and 1930s: they were instrumental in the promotion of Dickensian image, in the dissemination of his writing and in enhancing its popularity; thus Dickens’s name became firmly entrenched in the Lithuanian cultural context. For general readers and theatre audiences Dickens became the most famous, the most representative and the most popular English writer, regarded as an iconic figure in English literature, in stature competing only with Shakespeare.The first theatre production of Dickens’s work in Lithuania was A Christmas Carol; it was put on stage by the famous director Antanas Sutkus in 1927. It was followed by stage adaptations of The Chimes, Oliver Twist and The Cricket on the Hearth.A theatrical production of Dickens’s novel The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club was put on stage on September 29, 2002. Adapted and directed by the actor Sigitas Račkys in early twenty-first century at the Klaipėda Drama Theatre, it really came as a surprise given the temper and tenor of the times which are not very favourable for the reception of Dickens’s writing. And, naturally, the response to it was ambivalent and controversial.By all evidence, the performance was probably not a very successful attempt at the stage production of Dickens’s Pickwick in spite of the director’s efforts and good-will. However, it can be valued as an endeavour to rekindle the contemporary viewers’ and readers’ interest in Dickens’s art, which turned out to be a challenge both for the director Sigitas Račkys and his team of actors.

The paper focuses on the problem of language domain loss and sets out to examine the relationship between Lithuanian and English in TV commercials in Lithuania. The aim of the research is to determine the spread of English, together with the functions of English elements in the commercials and code-mixing. The data consists of a corpus of TV commercials recorded in 2003 and in 2009; in total, more than 1200 commercials, broadcasted during the most popular TV programs in one week each year. The analysis has shown that TV advertising as a domain of Lithuanian language use is not being lost and the situation hasn’t changed over the years. There are almost no only English commercials. Most of the commercials are a mix of Lithuanian and English codes, while English is mostly used in the product names. There are few English slogans and not much other information in English in the corpus. It turned out that there might be a special strategy for the localization of commercials in Lithuania. The oral form of the commercials is more Lithuanized than the written form. The slogans and the product names are presented in translation or explained in Lithuanian. At the same time, the written part of the commercials can have more information in English. Some English insertions most likely have a symbolic function to make an impression that the product advertised is valuable or modern. The use of English in commercials may have the purpose of communicating prestige and especially targeting at an audience with a high social status or young people.------ Straipsnyje keliama Lietuvoje iki šiol labai mažai tirta kalbos domenų praradimo problema ir analizuojami anglų ir lietuvių kalbų santykiai televizijos reklamoje. Tyrimo tikslas – nustatyti anglų kalbos vartojimo apimtis ir plitimą, angliškų elementų funkcijas bei kodų kaitos pobūdį. Medžiaga rinkta 2003 m. ir 2009 m., vieną savaitę įrašinėjant Lietuvos televizijų transliuojamų žiūrimiausių laidų reklamas. Tyrimo medžiagą iš viso sudarė per 1200 reklamų. Dviejų laikotarpių palyginimas parodė, kad televizijos reklama Lietuvoje nėra prarandamas kalbos domenas ir situacija praktiškai nesikeičia. Vien anglų kalba transliuojamų reklamų beveik nepasitaikė, o didžiąją dalį korpuso sudarančiose mišriose reklamose vyravo angliški prekės pavadinimai. Pastebėta, kad daugiau informacijos anglų kalba pateikiama rašytine nei garsine forma, taip pat, kad reklamose panaudojama anglų kalbos simbolinė vertė ir prestižas.

Straipsnyje siekiama apžvelgti anglakalbių ir besimokančių anglų kalbos studentų priešpriešos konektorių vartojimą. Medžiagą sudaro šiuo metu Vilniaus universiteto Anglų filologijos katedroje kaupiamas besimokančiųjų anglų kalbos tekstyno (ICLE –International Corpus of Learner English) lietuviškasis potekstynis (LICLE) ir pagal analogiškus kriterijus sudarytas gimtakalbių anglų kalbos vartotojų tekstynas (LOCNESS – Louvain Corpus of Native English Essays). Kontrastyvinės analizės metodu atliktame tyrime siekiama išsiaiškinti: (1) ar tiesioginis priešpriešos žymėjimas konektoriais yra vienodai paplitęs anglų kaip svetimojoje ir gimtakalbių kalboje ir (2) ar tiriamuose darbuose konektoriai yra vartojami tose pačiose sakinio ir teksto vietose. Ypatingas dėmesys skiriamas LICLE tekstyne dažniausiai pasitaikančiam konektoriui however ‘vis dėlto, tačiau’. Gauti rezultatai rodo, kad nors kiekybiniai priešpriešos konektorių vartojimo skirtumai nėra statistiškai reikšmingi, šios kategorijos konektorių pasiskirstymas tekste ir sakinyje LICLE ir LOCNESS tekstynuose skiriasi. Kai kuriais atvejais LICLE tekstyne pastebimos interkalbai būdingos vartojimo tendencijos. ------ This paper shows an attempt to present the analysis of contrastive connectors in advanced Lithuanian learners’ and native speakers’ English writing. For the purpose of the study LICLE corpus (Lithuanian subcorpus of ICLE (International Corpus of Learner English)) was used. A comparison is made with the native speakers’ data obtained from the British segment of LOCNESS (Louvain Corpus of Native English Essays). Several comparisons are made with the American and the A-level segments of LOCNESS as well. The central research questions are (1) whether advanced Lithuanian learners openly mark contrastive relations in the same way to natives and (2) whether text and sentence distribution of contrastive connectors is the same in the corpora under consideration. A special attention is paid to the use of however, which is the most commonly used contrastive connector and occupies the first place among the top ten connectors in the LICLE corpus. The obtained results indicate that though there is no statistically significant difference in the quantitative use of contrastive connectors, their distribution patterns in LICLE to a greater or lesser extent differ from those of the native speakers’. The Lithuanian learners, for example, significantly overuse contrastive connectors in a non-preferred sentence-initial position whereas the native speakers’ preferred sentence-medial position is significantly underused. This tendency is not characteristic only of the Lithuanian learners of English and could be considered a common phenomenon of the interlanguage.

It is now commonly agreed that written academic texts are dialogic and interactive. How do academic writers increase interactivity of discourse? How do they organise texts and communicate with readers? Text-connectors is one of the many metadiscoursal categories used by writers to arrange their arguments and involve their readers. This paper considers the use of text-connectors in the Master’s thesis genre in Linguistics and analyses 70 theses by native and non-native (Lithuanian) students of English. The aim of the study is to work out a methodological framework for the analysis of text-connectors in the MA thesis genre and to compare the frequencies of text-connectors in native speaker (L1) and non-native speaker (L2) English theses as well as with frequencies in other genres. The classification of text-connectors developed in the study includes nine functional categories: addition, attitude, concession, contrast/comparison, illustration, restatement, result, sequence and summary; the procedural considerations cover the problems of reflexivity, multifunctionality, clustering and double use of text-connectors; the comparison of L1 and L2 theses shows an enormous overuse of text-connectors in L2 texts. ------ Straipsnyje bandoma tyrinėti kaip realizuojama tarpasmeninė kalbos funkcija moksliniame diskurse, kaip sustiprinamas rašytinio teksto interaktyvumas, kaip struktūruojamas tekstas ir kuriamas dialogas su skaitytoju. Metadiskurso strategijų vartojimas yra vienas iš būdų teksto paveikumui sustiprinti. Teksto konektoriai – tai metadiskurso kategorija, padedanti tinkamai sudėlioti argumentus tekste bei įtraukti skaitytoją į diskurso procesą. Tyrimu siekiama apibūdinti teksto konektorių vartojimą lingvistikos magistro darbuose. Tyrimo medžiaga – 70 magistro darbų, parašytų gimtąja ir negimtąja anglų kalba Britanijos ir Lietuvos universitetuose.Straipsnyje pateikiami tyrimo pirmosios dalies rezultatai: (1) magistro darbo žanro teksto konektorių analizės metodologiniai metmenys: teksto konektorių funkcinė klasifikacija, susidedanti iš devynių kategorijų, jų lingvistinės raiškos pavyzdžiai bei tyrimo proceso probleminių aspektų analizė; (2) statistinės analizės rezultatai: teksto konektorių santykinis dažnumas magistro darbuose (0,77) bei dažnumų palyginimas gimtakalbių ir negimtakalbių studentų tekstuose (0,56:0,90), rodantis, jos negimtakalbiai (Lietuvos universitetų) anglų kalbos studentai vartoja daug daugiau teksto konektorių magistro darbuose (+355,06) nei gimtakalbiai. Tikėtina tokio gausaus teksto konektorių vartojimo priežastis – perdėtas dėmesys teksto konektoriams anglų kalbos pratybose vidurinio ugdymo ir bakalauro studijų pakopose bei anglų kalbos vadovėliuose. Gimtosios kalbos įtaka kaip galima gausaus konektorių vartojimo priežastis atmetama, nes kai kurie tyrimai rodo, jog lietuvių gimtosios kalbos akademiniuose studentų tekstuose metakalbinėms teksto siejimo priemonėms skiriama nepakankamai dėmesio. Gausus teksto konektorių vartojimas magistro darbuose būdingas ne tik Lietuvos, bet ir kitų kultūrų studentams, todėl galima teigti, jog tai yra bendras anglų kalbos tarpukalbės (‘interlanguage’) ypatumas.

The paper focuses on the problem of identity in A. L. Kennedy’s novel So I’m Glad and the short story Original Bliss. It argues that the structure of identity in the aforementioned works partly accounts for the ethics advanced in Kennedy’s work. At the centre of each work there is a romantically involved couple whose love stories offer interesting examples of a relationship between self and other. Kačkutė be­lieves that the other in Kennedy‘s writing is peculiar­ly positioned neither in or outside the subject, it cor­responds to Judith Butler’s idea of the constitutive outside that is brewed inside the subject. Either way such dialectics of the self and other results in a po­sitive identity development. Such change is marked by traumatic and physically painful experiences, but results in a cathartic moment that suggests the pro­found ethics underlying Kennedy‘s artistic project.

The morphology of Gothic, as well as that of other older Germanic languages, has traditionally been analysed in phonological terms, with classifications that reflect earlier stages in the development of Germanic. This paper represents a pioneering attempt at applying the ‘canonical’ approach to the analysis of older Germanic, with a view to producing an adequate synchronic analysis of the morphological properties of the Gothic adjective. It is demonstrated that the traditional separation of strong and weak forms is synchronically unreasonable, and determination represents a non-canonical morphosyntactic feature of the Gothic adjective. Even though the traditional stem-class labels are obsolete from a synchronic point of view, synchronic form variation within Gothic adjective paradigms warrants distinguishing four inflectional classes, a classification which coincides with the traditional philological taxonomy. In addition to inflectional class, Gothic adjectives have been found to have stem indexing and syncretic index features. ------ Gotų kalbos ir kitų senųjų germanų kalbų morfologija tradiciškai nagrinėjama remiantis fonologiniais kriterijais. Tokioje tradicinėje formų klasifikacijoje atsispindi ankstesnieji germanų kalbų raidos etapai; taigi, toks analizės metodas – sinchroniškai neaktualus. Siekiant nuosekliai aprašyti gotų kalbos būdvardžių morfologinius požymius sinchroniniu požiūriu, straipsnyje taikomas kanoninis metodas. Pirmiausia pristatoma „kanono“ sąvoka, apibrėžiamas kanoniškumas fleksijų morfologijoje ir pateikiama grynųjų morfologinių požymių tipologija. Kanonas, tai – abstrakcija, kuri yra daugelio kanoninių kriterijų konvergencijos rezultatas. Nustatant kalbos reiškinio kanoną, išplečiamos reiškinio teorinės ribos ir sukuriama kanoninė erdvė, kurioje galima logiškai ir nuosekliai klasifikuoti reiškinio apraiškas. Remiantis kanonine metodologija straipsnyje įrodinėjama, kad tradicinis stipriųjų (neapibrėžtųjų) ir silpnųjų (apibrėžtųjų) būdvardžių paradigmų atskyrimas yra sinchroniškai nepateisinamas, kadangi determinacijos (apibrėžtumo/neapibrėžtumo) kategorija, tai – pilnavertė morfosintaksinė būdvardžių kategorija. Skirtingai nuo skaičiaus, linksnio ir giminės kategorijų, determinacija laikytina nekanoniška. Argumentuojama, kad sinchroniniu požiūriu tradicinė būdvardžių klasifikacija pagal istorinį kamiengalį – nebeaktuali, kadangi patys kamiengaliai paradigmose sinchroniškai nebeapčiuopiami. Nepaisant to, fleksijų sistemoje egzistuojanti leksiškai determinuota formų įvairovė sudaro prielaidą išskirti keturias būdvardžių klases, kurios sutampa su istorine klasifikacija pagal kamiengalį. Taigi galima teigti, kad senoji kamieno morfologija ilgainiui virsta morfosintaksine morfologija. Be minėtų keturių būdvadžių fleksinių klasių, gotų kalbos būdvardyje išskirtini dar du grynai morfologiniai požymiai: kamieno rodiklis ir sinkretiškumo rodiklis.

The paper presents the translator’s decisions regarding elements of foreign culture as examples from the novels Memory of my Melancholy Whores by G.G. Marquez and Fury by S. Rushdie, both in three translations. In the theoretical part the established term Ausgangskultur (source culture) is replaced by Bezugskultur (culture of reference) in order to avoid suggestion of granted identity between culture and language. It is shown that all translators in general aim at the reader’s conformity but are not consequent at all regarding the strategy of rendering the elements of foreign culture. The technique overrules the strategy; each of the analyzed translations contains transportations of foreign elements, explanations of the latter and cases of their replacing by domestic phenomena.

This paper engages with the scholarly discussion of the process of globalization and how they relates to changes in our discipline. The first problem is the fact that most of the scholarly literature on globalization originates from the social sciences and it is unclear how this body of scholarship transfers to what we are doing, i.e., how it relates to aesthetic issues and the understanding and critique of cultural practices. It is one thing to describe the portrayal of contemporary culture with its emphasis on consumer goods and material processes of exchange in contemporary literary texts, thematically so to speak, and it is quite another to engage with the concept of globalization on a structural level. What does a discipline of literary and cultural studies look like that has a refined understanding and critical engagement with globalization as a process that characterizes contemporary societies worldwide, not one that is simply borrowed from the social sciences and then tested on literary texts? What are the main topics of such a newly realigned discipline and what are its methodological premises? German Studies in a globalized age is an endeavor that highlights the negotiation of cultural values on a local level in a global context. Literary and cultural studies in a global age should focus on what they do best, i.e., describe the functioning of aesthetic structures. The national literatures need to shift their focus from a nationalist philological agenda to a more global arena, not to be confused with traditional comparative literature that presumes the existence of different nationalist agendas that then can be compared. Literary and cultural studies in a global and digital age must be expansive and situate its regional focus within global concerns on a thematic as well as a structural level.

Annales of Ennius, partly aimed at survey of Roman history year by year, partly at memorizing Roman heroes and equating them to gods, though had a few antecedant models in Hellenistic epic, remains unrivalled in respect of vastitude and bravery of the innovatory devise. The poem, praising deeds of Roman god-like ancestors, kings, consuls and tribunes, had certain political aspirations tending to melt the scepticism towards Greek culture and its reception among conservative members of aristocracy of Ennius’ time. On the other hand, being performed in traditional Roman convivial setting, Annales were in accord with Roman piety and reverent attitude towards gods, whence poet’s aim at his own otherness and impartiality might be discerned.Annales of Ennius not only reminds its readers of Roman strategy of gaining over Carthaginian or Greek deities during Roman expansion outside Appenines, but also claims their common identity with Roman gods, whence the idea of Greek and Roman cultural affinity and common genealogy comes. This idea most probably originates from the deep consideration of homeric and hellenistic epic and their exegetical traditions combined with other philosophical views (even contrasting ones) attainable in III B. C. Italy. However, the state of extant text of Annales, consisting of over 600 fragmentary verses (plus around 100 more or less identified testimonia together with recently deciphered fragments from Herculanean papyrus), doesn’t provide us with certain argument what attitude in Ennius’ notion prevailed, unless we investigate one by one all the mentions of gods in this poem. The complex task is treated in this article in a selective manner: the main attention is paid only to the limited part of over 40 deities present in Annales, namely, to the Greco-Roman dodekatheon or di consentes, most clearly attested in Ann. 240–241 Sk. The method of investigation rests on the description of each deity separately, both trying to establish the most characteristical features of each in Ennian depiction and compare with the evidence of his / her contemporary cult and degree of syncretization.In the course of analysis, a somewhat parallel attempt is also made to verify Cicero’s message concerning Ennius’ belief in gods in general (Div. 1, 58). The analysis shows quite divergent result resting upon incomplete status of our sources: some gods are depicted as participants of human actions, some remain mere vague representatives of natural phenomena.The bulk of conclusions deals with national dependance, hierarchy and stylistic variation of Ennius’ dodekatheon. Material of this paper clearly indicates the national priority in Annales: the most honoured both statistically and virtually are the four ancestral Roman gods (di genitales) – Juppiter, Juno, Venus and Mars. Each of them also appears in certain non-Roman context (Trojan, Greek, Carthaginian or Sabinian), where their Roman priority is not emphasized, unless their Latin name is taken into account. The latter fact combined with Ennian technics of Homer’s imitation and hellenistic erudition enables him to rewrite ancient history from the Roman point. This actually happens on the theological level when Roman state gods become continuators of variously reinterpreted homeric greco-trojan gods. Annals of Ennius thus attest the absorbtion of Greek Olympic pantheon into Roman state pantheon. Depiction of gods in the poem also has certain “expurgatory” mark, since very few traces of obscenity in gods’ portrayal are present (with exception of Mars, called homo pulcer with possibly euhemeric hint). On the other hand, the sublimity of Ennian gods is moderate: there are several indications of their humanly sensitive and not indifferent stance in their contacts with people (esp. Juno, Juppiter and Venus).A considerable group of Olympian gods in the current fragmentary shape of Annals remains not clearly presented: some produce no material for deeper analysis (e. g. Diana and Ceres), some appear only in the metonymic use (Neptune, Volcanus), others could be characterized on the ground of mere indirect reference to their ritual elements, mythological or allegorical identity (Vesta, Minerva, Mercurius). Permanent attention to universal aspects, esp. to the mysthic and prophetic ones (Minerva, Apollo, Muses), and avoidance of “undignified” features show perhaps definite poet’s attitude and support modern view of Ennius’ both honorable and impartial position towards Roman “political Olympus”.

Based on a corpus of articles from two regional subscription newspapers representing the most widespread type of daily papers in Germany, this contribution analyses quotations in headlines of press articles and their relation to the corresponding sequences in the text body, thus focussing on the quotations’ intratextual reference quality. It turns out, that a considerable part of these “quotations” shows modifications of the formulations given in the text body. How the modifications are actually formed is modelled by a five-stage scale, and which functions they fulfil is illustrated by selected examples.

The article discusses issues concerning terminological-conceptual equivalence between so called “systems of concepts” of two language and culture communities in the context of the work of a translator or the translatability of terminologies. Based on several studies (mostly concerning legal terminology) carried out in the last few years in MA papers of students of the study program Interpreting/Translation of Vilnius University some of the general questions of terminology work can be pointed out that are connected to the problem of the so called terminological “gap” and need to be reassessed. On the basis of the studies concerning the language combination German-Lithuanian not only “pure” linguistic differences between those two languages but also “differences in the matter” (i.e. differences between the language and culture communities) always were identifiable. The examples presented in this article should demonstrate how those gaps in “systems of concepts” can be dealt with so that it can be useful in the work of an interpreter or a translator who stands between those two languages and cultures.

Įrašomas į diktofoną žodinis užrašyto teksto vertimas yra hibridinis žodinio ir rašytinio vertimo variantas, daugelyje kalbų paplitęs a-vista vertimo pavadinimu. Jis skirtas klientams, kurie pageidauja suprasti rašytinio teksto turinį pigiausiu būdu. Vertėjas skaito tekstą ir sinchroniškai verčia jį į kitą kalbą, įrašydamas į diktofoną. Darbo rezultatas – įrašytas tekstas klausymui. Jo turinys tikslus, tačiau skambėjimas – kaip neparengtos kalbos. Įgūdžiai, intelektinės pastangos bei kiti veiksniai panašūs į sinchroninį vertimą, tačiau produktas nėra momentinis, t.y. jis gali būti kartotinis, o vertimo procesas lankstesnis, primenantis vertimą raštu. ----- With the growing market for language services, the changing needs of clients, and the technological advance, arise new tailor-made types of translation that fall in-between the traditional categories (such as oral/written, simultaneous/consecutive, transient/permanent, etc.), attempting to combine their advantages and best suit the given purpose. Initially inspired by a practitioner’s point of view, enhanced by a theoretical analysis, the paper presents the characteristics of a type of sight translationthat is recorded for the client, which seems to be a very convenient form and an optimal solution for certain purposes.

In this paper, I have tried to show that the meanings of Modern Norwegian modal verbs may best be described in terms of gradable scales (clines) both with respect to epistemic and non-epistemic modality.Epistemic modality deals with the degree of commitment;Deontic modality – “ – degree of moral desirability;Dynamic modality – “ – degree of readiness.The use of such gradable scales (clines) enables us to draw a semantic map which adequately covers the relevant semantic area – and to make some hypotheses about the diachronic development of the meanings of the Norwegian modal verbs.

Šiame straipsnyje pristatomas leksinių ertmių reiškinys bei jo potipis – morfologinės ertmės. Morfologinių ertmių, kurios atsiranda dėl tam tikrų dviejų kalbų derivacijos potencialų skirtumų (šiame straipsnyje – neigiamos reikšmės perteikimas priešdėlių pagalba anglų ir lietuvių kalbose), analizė parodė, kaip tokia morfologinio pobūdžio sąvokų leksikalizacijos stoka įtakoja vertimą, t. y. domėtasi, kaip morfologinės ertmės perteikiamos vertimo kalboje. Straipsnyje pirmiausia aptariami vertimo atvejai dvikalbiame anglų–lietuvių kalbų žodyne. Pastebėta, kad tokiais atvejais dažniausiai vartojami vertimo metodai yra vertimas sinonimų grupe bei aprašomasis vertimas. Aptariamos su tokiu reikšmės perteikimu susijusios problemos. Žodynų vertimai palyginti su vertimais tekstuose, kurie gauti pasitelkus Lygiagretųjį anglų – lietuvių kalbų tekstyną. Tokių dviejų šaltinių vertimų palyginimas užbaigiamas diskusija apie išplėstinio vertimo vieneto sąvoką ir tekstynų medžiagos panaudojimą vertime bei šiuolaikinėje leksikografijoje. ----- Machine translation systems, machine-readable dictionaries or other computer-oriented electronic lexical resources present a challenging task in the case of the Lithuanian language. Many of them are related to the problem of non-equivalence resulting from cultural and systemic differences and thus existing on various levels of a language – lexical, morphological and syntactic. This paper focuses on instances of non-equivalence between Lithuanian and English on the morphologicallevel. More specifically, the resolution of non-equivalence problems caused by morphological gaps between English and Lithuanian is investigated. Morphological gaps represent a type of lexicalgaps, which are understood as lack of direct lexicalisation for a certain concept.

The paper deals with the sociology of literature of Pierre Bourdieu, one of the most influential figures in contemporary sociology of art. Initially, Bourdieu intended to overcome dichotomy of formalistic and contextual approaches, to transcend both the subjectivism and objectivism and to situate culture within broader social context and power relations. The sociologist suggested a systematic approach to literary practise and elaborated a theory of fields, the key terms of which are field, habitus, economic, social, cultural and symbolic capital, struggles, stake, structural homology, positions, dispositions, domination, strategy etc. The specificity of the literary field is defined mostly by the concepts of relative autonomy and “reversed” economy. Bourdieu examines the social positions of individuals and institutions involved in making cultural products (writers, publishers, critics, readers etc.), the social conditions, circulation and consumption of literary works. In this conceptual framework, literary text gains a specific status as the independent object of analysis (even such literary features as genre, narrative devices, types of characters etc. have special social meaning and function), what distinguishes Bourdieu from many his predecessors. His practical researches bring together various methods and combine empirical analysis with a strong theoretical frame. Numerous contemporary projects of sociology of culture are based on Bourdieu’s ideas. Some issues, however, have been brought for discussion, especially the universality of the notions and the concept of autonomy. Bourdieu constructed a powerful, highly theoretically structured model for interpretation of literature. It integrates every element of culture and provides tools for revealing their complex dialectical relations. Bourdieu’s sociology of literature might be a beneficial mode of analysis for Lithuanian literary scholars.

Antrame ciklo straipsnyje analizuojama abejotina ir prieštaringa informacija apie ankstyvą poeto, žurnalisto, lietuvių literatūros vertėjo Eugenijaus Škliaro (1893-1941) literatūrinę veiklą: pirmas pasirodymas spaudoje (1911), pirmas dedikuotas Lietuvai eilėraštis (1912), pirmas poezijos rinkinys (1920), nustatomos tiksli pirmojo spausdinto eilėraščio „Bedarbis“ data ir vieta; išsiaiškinama, kad eilėraštis, pavadinimu „Iš Nemuno žemupio“ ar panašiai, minimas tarpukario spaudoje kaip ankstyvos lietuviškos orientacijos įrodymas, iš tikrųjų buvo išspausdintas ne 1912 m., kaip rašė J. Paleckis, L. Gira ir kiti, o 1913 m., ir vadinosi „Dniepro aukštupyje“ ir nieko bendro su Lietuvos tema neturėjo. Minimas kai kuriose straipsniuose pirmas rinkinio Kiparisai leidimas, neva išleistas 1920 ar 1921 m. Rostove prie Dono, iš viso yra išgalvotas. Spėjama, kad E. Škliaras tikslingai mistifikavo savo biografiją tam, kad pagrįstų ir pateisintų lietuvišką temą savo kūriniuose ir užimtų geidžiamą vietą Lietuvos literatūriniame gyvenime In the second article from the cycle of articles is analyzed doubtful and contradictory information about the early activity of poet, journalist, and translator of Lithuanian literature, Evgenij Shkliar (Eugenijus Škliaras; 1893-1941): the debut in the press (1911); the first poem, dedicated to Lithuania (1912); the first book of poetry (1920). Precise date and place of the first published poem by E. Shkliar "Unemployed" in the paper are established. It is also explained that the poem, mentioned in the press between WWI and WWII as the proof of early Shkliar's Lithuanian orientation, in reality was printed not in 1912, as did write some Lithuanian and Russian authors, but in 1913, and anything common with a theme of Lithuania had no. The first edition of the collection of poems The Cypresses mentioned in some articles, ostensibly issued in 1920 or 1921 in Rostov-on-Don, in the south of Russia, is an invention. It is supposed, that Evgenij Shkliar intentionally mystified his biography in order to base and justify the Lithuanian theme in its verses and to take a desired place in the Lithuanian literary life

The paper is based on the concept of experiencing consciousness that embraces the experience expressed in the text and the lived pre-textual experience. The reversibility of the fiction and the experienced reality is investigated.The investigation discovers the map of the town constantly recurring in the poetry of Nyka-Niliūnas. This reconstructed map is identical to the native town of the poet. The town reveals itself in the poetry as the own lived town of the speaker.The same topography of the town is repeated in the diaries in the forms of the dreams as well as of the reminiscences. The special substrate of the speaking consciousness is evident. The interconnection between the three modes of consciousness – poetic, remembering and the dreaming – is exposed. All the three intensive forms of the consciousness deal with the personal identity. The recurrence of the space of the town is motivated and the perpetual return to the same space is clarified.

The first Prussians’ encounter with Christianity ended in the martyrdom of the missionary St. Adalbert; it took place on the 23rd of April, 997. What provoked his martyrdom is far from clear to this day. According to some hypotheses, the Prussians were provoked by St. Adalbert’s unfamiliar pontifical vestments that he put on to celebrate Mass, or simply by his unacceptable appearance. The present paper draws attention to the beginning of the conflict with the Prussians. Its cause is St. Adalbert’s unusual behaviour – reading prayers from a book. This could have been perceived as a way of communicating with the supernatural world which threatened the community, as a magic charm. It is important to note the day when St. Adalbert was martyred. According to the Christian calendar this is St. George’s day. In many countries of Central and Eastern Europe this is the day when working the fields symbolically begins. Later sources attest that the pagan Prussian festival of the rebirth of nature, the celebration of spring which was supposed to guarantee future harvest, coincided with this day. Christian missionary with his rituals, externally based on the reading of liturgical books, may have created a perception that his activities would harm future fertility of the earth and animals.

In this research paper the play Probočių šešėliai [The Shadows of Forefathers] written by famous Lithuanian philosopher Vidunas is analysed in details. Besides classical critical analysis of the text, deconstruction as the method is used as well, making the meanings intended by the author reversible. The innovation of the research is the third methodical part of it – the hermeneutic-phenomenological protocol. The results and the process of the research are described concerning the dynamics of time and problem solving. What is most often left undisclosed in a real research – its temporal duration, findings and disappointments, here is very strongly put on the surface of the consciousness. The researcher in this way is disclosed as the embodied and the embedded agent in the process of research. Analysis of the direct object of the research – the play Probočių šešėliai – along these methodical lines of structural deconstruction and hermeneutic-phenomenological protocol clarifies the figure of Visuomis as a non empathic philosopher. This predicate might be projected to the whole spiritualistic philosophy of Vidunas. Much discussed philosophy of the body developed by Vidunas is strongly questioned, analysing a few examples from the life of Vidunas himself: the early childhood and the turningpoint event of his falling from the ship. The whole body of Vidunas in this event was shocked, as he describes himself, and Vidunas understood in the new light the relevance of the body in the experience of the world. Does this event might be considered as the “Lithuanian version” of the collision of God of the Philosophers and God of Abraham, Jacob and Isaac?

This paper describes the former Klaipėda region Highlanders area (from Smaliniñkai (Jùrbarkas region) to Juknáičiai (Šilùtė region)) dialectal situation and usage characteristics of consonants in the specific habitat in the beginning of the 21st century. Recent observations suggest that most of consonant changes (hardening of consonants, usage of middle l’, aspirated and slightly voiceless voiced consonants and etc.) described in the previous works of dialectologists captured in the beginning of 21st century. In the old local population language the use cases of hard consonants in the positions of iota softening before suffixes and endings appear quite often. Consonant hardening begins at about Viešvilė surrounding area (Jùrbarkas region) and stronger going westward, mostly hardening cases recorded in the central area of descriptive dialects of Rukai, Pagėgiai, Bitėnai. The most common hardened consonants in the positions of iota softness are r, v, n, example: tràktọrùs ~ traktorius ‘tractor’, keturu∙ ~ keturių ‘of four’; daržõ∙vu. ~ daržovių ‘of vegetables’, lietùvu. ~ lietuvių ‘of Lithuanians’; ˈran.kinu ~ rankiniu ‘manual’, žinuõ∙s ~ žinios ‘news’. A much less often consonants hardening occurs in the root, example: trùš’u. ~ triušių ‘of rabbits’, gro∙vi∙s ~ griovys ‘ditch’, suntini ~ siuntinį ‘parcel’. In the dialects of the 21st century “middle” l’, common for Klaipėda residents is systematically preserved. In common position of hard l usage in general language this consonant sounds as soft by ear, example: l’a.pαi ~ lapai ‘leafs’, bl’o.gã.i. ~ blogai ‘bad’, kul’dava ~ kuldavo ‘whacked’. In those positions, where in general language it is normal to pronounce the soft l’, example: in iota softening positions this consonant sounds almost as hard l: kõ∙kl’u∙ ~ koklių ‘of tiles’, kaul’ukùs ~ kauliukus ‘dices’, *š’auluõs ~ Šiauliuose ‘in Šiauliai’. Also other consonant changes occur sometimes in described area: non-motivated softness, aspiration, contraposition neutralization of voiceless and voiced consonants and etc. To be highlighted, as it was earlier as in the presence all described consonant changes are not systematic (are variable) in dialect. Consonant hardening phenomenon is undoubtedly related to the West Lithuanian area of dialects which are characterized by the declination of soft stems.

The paper analyses the discourse of the black narrator and protagonist – Eva in Gayl Jones’s novel Eva’s Man. The French feminist theory of l’écriture féminine with its emphasis on textuality of gender has been applied to prove that the Afro-American woman creates her Self while writing and her text becomes the essence of her identity since any other opportunity of emotional, intellectual and spiritual evolution has been denied to her. It is explained that the black woman revolves against the boundaries of the hierarchical system, into which she had been placed, silenced and transformed into an object of male manipulation. The analysis of the novel suggests that the liberation of the black woman from the male construct coincides with the progress of her self-creation. Eva disrupts the rationalistic discourse, subverts the phallologocentric order, and establishes a dialogue of gap and silence. The black narrator’s text transforms the traditional canon of woman as ground, her body as the blank page and subjugates the black male body to secure her ciphers on it as her own text. It has been stressed that the woman’s conscious conversion into the subject and the creator enables her to translate the man into the object.

The paper deals with the sociology of literature of Pierre Bourdieu, one of the most influential figures in contemporary sociology of art. Initially, Bourdieu intended to overcome dichotomy of formalistic and contextual approaches, to transcend both the subjectivism and objectivism and to situate culture within broader social context and power relations. The sociologist suggested a systematic approach to literary practise and elaborated a theory of fields, the key terms of which are field, habitus, economic, social, cultural and symbolic capital, struggles, stake, structural homology, positions, dispositions, domination, strategy etc. The specificity of the literary field is defined mostly by the concepts of relative autonomy and “reversed” economy. Bourdieu examines the social positions of individuals and institutions involved in making cultural products (writers, publishers, critics, readers etc.), the social conditions, circulation and consumption of literary works. In this conceptual framework, literary text gains a specific status as the independent object of analysis (even such literary features as genre, narrative devices, types of characters etc. have special social meaning and function), what distinguishes Bourdieu from many his predecessors. His practical researches bring together various methods and combine empirical analysis with a strong theoretical frame. Numerous contemporary projects of sociology of culture are based on Bourdieu’s ideas. Some issues, however, have been brought for discussion, especially the universality of the notions and the concept of autonomy. Bourdieu constructed a powerful, highly theoretically structured model for interpretation of literature. It integrates every element of culture and provides tools for revealing their complex dialectical relations. Bourdieu’s sociology of literature might be a beneficial mode of analysis for Lithuanian literary scholars.

Phaedrus’ speech in Plato’s Symposium was often ignored by Platonic scholars as unphilosophical, and has been analysed mostly in its rhetorical aspects. This narrowed the intentions of the dialogue down to theoretical speculations, neglecting a practical problem – namely, which values of the Greek polis remained relevant in the epoch of radical cultural transformation through which Plato lived. The detailed analysis of Phaedrus’ speech reveals some of its aspects that remained latent until now, establishing that the system of concepts of ‘shame’ and ‘aspiration to glory’ derives from the traditional system of values of Greek military community, and thus has a concrete historical and social content. It was precisely Socrates and later Plato who embarked on the revision of the Greek concept of ‘shame’ (as Plato’s Apology attests). The paper employs additional sources that help to recreate the historical context of the speech and to inscribe it into its authentic Sitz im Leben.Furthermore, Lysias’ speech against Alcibiades is linked with Phaedrus’ speech and the whole context of the Symposium.

This article, based on the paper presented at the ISHR 2013 Conference (July 24–27, 2013, Chicago), reconsiders the rhetorical image of Isocrates, preserved in his literary works and especially in three of the most prominent speeches, Panegyricus, Antidosis, and Panathenaicus, discusses certain controversies and difficulties of determining his public character and his attitude towards the audience and, basing on both empirically gathered data (references found in Isocrates’ writings) and on the theoretical basement provided by the consideration of the classical rhetoric tradition and the modern communication science approach, reviews the main aspects of the speaker’s self-presentational tactics as seen in his self-reflexive statements (found in the mentioned speeches), the examination of which could lead to a better comprehension of the otherwise obscure picture of this influential Athenian rhetorician.

Straipsnyje nagrinėjamas lietuvių rašytojo ir filosofo Vydūno nedidelės apimties tekstas „F. M. Dostojevski“ (1921), skirtas šio rašytojo 100-sioms gimimo metinėms paminėti. Filosofo nuomone, lietuviams nedera skaityti šio giliai rusiško rašytojo kūrinių. Savo išvadą Vydūnas pagrindžia antroje straipsnio dalyje. Jo teigimu, Dostojevskio kūrinai neatskleidžia tikrojo tikėjimo išminties ir galios, nesuteikia žmogui galimybės išreikšti savo žmogiškąjį didingumą. Svarbiausia rusų rašytojo klaida Vydūnas įvardija atsisakymą sukurti skaitytojams idealaus žmogaus gyvenimo pavyzdį. Jubiliejinį straipsnį Vydūnas užbaigia lietuvių tautai iškeltu uždaviniu siekti užsibrėžto tikslo, vadovaujantis moralės normomis („žvelgti pirmyn ir aukštyn“). Straipsnyje aptariamas neigiamas Vydūno požiūris į Dostojevskio kūrybą, aiškinamos priežastys, lėmusios rusų rašytojo reikšmės lietuvių kultūrai atmetimą. Kūrybos vertės klausimą Vydūnas siejo su tautiškumo problema ir tautinės dvasios sklaida. Dostojevskio kūryba Vydūnui – rusų kultūros metonimija. Teigiama, jog kritišką Vydūno požiūrį į Dostojevskio kūrybą lėmė: savita religinė filosofinė Vydūno pasaulėžiūrinė sistema, susiformavusi protestantizmo, idealistinės vokiečių filosofijos, neovedantizmo, teosofijos pagrindu; Lietuvos istorinė politinė situacija pirmaisiais XX a. dešimtmečiais. Vydūnas straipsnyje apie Dostojevskį išreiškė anuomet vyravusias dalies lietuvių kūrybinės inteligentijos nuotaikas, konkretaus istorinio tarpsnio, istorinio konteksto savitumą. Article deals with an analysis of the Lithuanian writer and philosopher Vydūnas’ small text "F. M. Dostoevsky" (1921), intended for this writer’s 100th birthday anniversary. The philosopher supposes that it is inappropriate to read this deeply Russian writer’s works. His conclusion Vydūnas explains in the second paragraph. According to him, Dostoevsky’s works do not reveal the true faith, wisdom and power, do not give a person the opportunity to express the human grandeur. The most important Russian writer’s error refusal to identify the an is his example of a perfect human life. Vydūnas completes the anniversary article with the tasks set to the Lithuanian people in accordance with moral norms ("to look forward and up"). This paper discusses the negative Vydūnas’ approach to Dostoevsky’s works, interpretes the causes which led to rejecting the Russian writer’s value to the Lithuanian culture. Vydūnas linked the creative value with the problem of nationality and national spirit dissemination. Dostoevsky‘s works for Vydūnas are the Russian culture metonymy. It is argued that the critical approach of Vydūnas’ to Dostoevsky’s works was determined by: a unique religious philosophical Vydūnas’ world system formed of Protestantism, German idealistic philosophy, neovedantism, theosophy, Lithuanian historical political situation in the early twentieth century decades. Vydūnas’ article about Dostoyevsky expressed the then prevailing creative mood of Lithuanian intellectuals, a specific historical period, historical context.

[Literatūrzinātne, folkloristika, māksla = Literature, Folklore, Arts: Okazionālā poēzija: veltījums kultūras tekstos. Окказиональная поэзия: п о с л а н и е в текстах культуры. Occasional Poetry: an Epistle in the Texts of Culture. Krājuma sastādītājas: Ludmila Sproģe, Nataļja Šroma. Rīga: Latvijas Universitāte, 2012. 92 lpp. (Latvijas Universitātes raksti = Acta Universitatis Latviensis = Scientific papers University of Latvia. 782. sējums = Volume 782)]

The current article surveys the scope and the major assumptions of domestic critical discourse on literary translation from English into Lithuanian since 1990. The market conditions have changed enormously since Lithuania moved to a market-free economy and chose a democratic ruling system, thus affecting all the spheres of culture, including literary and translation production. Critical evaluation of quality, adequacy, norms and other related issues of literary translation does not seem to keep pace with a rapid production of literary translation. Since the publication of a textbook on translation by Armalytė and Pažūsis (1990), no other fundamental work has been published in this area. The current review of critical discourse on literary translation includes two major sources of periodical literature – that is, academic papers in scholarly magazines and critical reviews in newspapers and magazines targeting wider readership. The major aim of this review is to identify the potentials and limits of national critical discourse by examining topic areas, critical standards applied to the evaluation of actual translations, and some metadiscoursal issues.

Straipsnyje apžvelgiami sociolingvistinio tyrimo, atlikto nagrinėjant internetinius ir spausdintus darbo skelbimus, rezultatai. Šiuo tyrimu siekta išsiaiškinti, kurių kalbų ir kokių kalbos įgūdžių šiuo metu labiausiai reikia Lietuvoje veikiančioms verslo įmonėms. Tyrimo medžiagą sudaro 1063 lietuvių kalba parašyti interneto svetainių, nacionalinių dienraščių ir rajonų laikraščių darbo skelbimai. Atliktas tyrimas parodė, kad dažniausiai Lietuvos įmonės ieško darbuotojų, mokančių kelias kalbas: ne tik plačiai vartojamas anglų, rusų, vokiečių, lenkų, bet ir retesnes – suomių, norvegų, danų, ispanų, italų, portugalų ar kt.; matyti, kad darbdaviai pageidauja, jog būsimieji darbuotojai mokėtų ir taisyklingą lietuvių kalbą. Pastebėta, kad darbo skelbimuose kalbos įgūdžiai dažniausiai apibūdinami nesiremiant Bendrąja Europos kalbų mokėjimo orientacine sistema, todėl formuluotės yra abstrakčios ir gali būti skirtingai suprantamos darbdavių ir darbuotojų This paper discusses the variety of languages and the level of language competence required in job advertisements in Lithuania. The research is based on the data collected from on-line and hard-copy newspapers; job advertisements under investigation include those written in Lithuanian and other languages. The main findings suggest that in on-line advertisements employers require foreign language competence more often than those in the hard-copy adverts. It has also been observed that competence of two languages is of high demand. If employers require competence of 3 languages, the order of the languages is as follows: national (Lithuanian), lingua-franca (English), and others (Russian or Polish). Lithuanian is of high importance in job advertisements as employers tend to take into consideration the level of written and spoken Lithuanian. Finally, the data have revealed that in job advertisements language knowledge is described in very abstract terms, and references to the CEFR are hardly ever observed in the collected data

The paper introduces the results of the synchronic analysis of the productivity of noun paradigms. On the basis of the theory of Natural Morphology, to identify productive paradigms, two criteria have been selected: a) the variation of inflectional paradigms and b) the morphological integration of new loanwords. The variation of inflectional paradigms is treated as confusing inflections of different paradigms. The new morphologically integrated loanwords refer to words of foreign origin of the last decade which have been used with Lithuanian inflections. Both criteria of paradigm productivity have been analysed on the basis of the Corpus of Spoken Lithuanian compiled in 2006-2008 (http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/~andrius/SKT5/5SKT-paiesk.php); it provides an opportunity to investigate samples of natural spontaneous language. The analysis of the morphological integration of loanwords has proved the initial hypothesis that new loanwords adopt natural inflections, i.e. inflections of productive paradigms. The investigation of the variation of inflectional paradigms has shown that the words undergo paradigm changes from unproductive to productive inflectional paradigms. The investigation has revealed that masculine paradigms are more productive in contemporary Lithuanian than feminine paradigms. The inflections of masculine paradigms are usually attached to new loanwords and replace the inflections of less productive paradigms. The 1st male paradigm ( -as ) seems to be the most productive. The 3rd male paradigm ( -is , -ys ) has turned out to be less productive. Rather stable but unproductive is the 6th female paradigm ( -a ); it has few loanwords; the nouns of this paradigm are not used with the inflections of other paradigms. Other paradigms of the noun could be treated either as stable (8th paradigm ( -ė )) or unproductive (4th ( -us ), 11th (-, -iui ) and 12th (-, -iai ); 9th ( -is , -iai ) and 10th ( -is , -iui ) paradigms).

Traditional dictionaries provide lexicographic data of the same type in different ways; such unrestricted freedom might result in imprecise information. Some such cases are explained by an attempt to compile traditional dictionaries so that they are handy for their users. The paper discusses several non-systemic cases of providing forms of lexicographic items, their meanings and shades of meaning, derivatives, proper and common lexis. The data has been drawn from more than ten dictionaries of several languages. The structure of the electronic database requires utmost precision; therefore, any non-systemic items are not justified. Due to the above reasons, a lexeme, or a lexicographic unit in one of its meanings, has been chosen as the key structural unit of the Database of Contemporary Lithuanian Lexicon (DCLL, Dabartinės lietuvių leksikos duomenų bazė). To produce a most precise card of a lexeme is much more rational and simpler than that of the whole lexicographic unit. In the process, a number of analogous cases and other cases of non-systemic description of data should be taken into account. Moreover, it is hardly possible to consider them all. Thus an attempt will be made to finally produce the DCLL as a card index of lexemes rather than lexicographic units (their entries). Dictionary entries are to be produced by joining the lexemes automatically.

The paper sets out to examine the Lithuanian loanwords whose morphological adaptation so far has not been complete; their inflection still poses quite a few problems, e.g. avokado, ateljė etc. The investigation focuses on new loanwords, e.g. indigas, ekstazis, susis . It also includes some older loanwords, e.g. alibi, solfedžio ; in actual usage they fluctuate between fully inflected and uninflected forms. New loanwords refer to words which came into actual Lithuanian usage after the restoration of Lithuania's independence. The tendencies of inflecting loanwords in contemporary Lithuanian have been investigated on the basis of a survey. The results of the survey suggest that some loanwords with unstressed endings are mostly used in their inflected forms; they have been given preference by ca 89.89 per cent of the respondents. Other loanwords (e.g. gospelas, spageciai, bikinis ) are equally frequent in their inflected and uninflected forms. The third group of loanwords (e.g. alibi, bingo, chaki, ledi, maestro ) are mostly used in their uninflected forms; they have been chosen by 86.89 per cent of the respondents. The results of the survey have shown that in actual usage uninflected loanwords with the stressed ending -ė prevail (e.g. atasė, dekoltė, esė, turnė, želė ); they have been given preference by 88.82 per cent of the respondents. However, in contemporary Lithuanian all of these loanwords have morphologically adapted variants.

Straipsnyje keliama Lietuvoje iki šiol labai mažai tirta kalbos domenų praradimo problema ir analizuojami anglų ir lietuvių kalbų santykiai televizijos reklamoje. Tyrimo tikslas – nustatyti anglų kalbos vartojimo apimtis ir plitimą, angliškų elementų funkcijas bei kodų kaitos pobūdį. Medžiaga rinkta 2003 m. ir 2009 m., vieną savaitę įrašinėjant Lietuvos televizijų transliuojamų žiūrimiausių laidų reklamas. Tyrimo medžiagą iš viso sudarė per 1200 reklamų. Dviejų laikotarpių palyginimas parodė, kad televizijos reklama Lietuvoje nėra prarandamas kalbos domenas ir situacija praktiškai nesikeičia. Vien anglų kalba transliuojamų reklamų beveik nepasitaikė, o didžiąją dalį korpuso sudarančiose mišriose reklamose vyravo angliški prekės pavadinimai. Pastebėta, kad daugiau informacijos anglų kalba pateikiama rašytine nei garsine forma, taip pat, kad reklamose panaudojama anglų kalbos simbolinė vertė ir prestižas The paper focuses on the problem of language domain loss and sets out to examine the relationship between Lithuanian and English in TV commercials in Lithuania. The aim of the research is to determine the spread of English, together with the functions of English elements in the commercials and code-mixing. The data consists of a corpus of TV commercials recorded in 2003 and in 2009; in total, more than 1200 commercials, broadcasted during the most popular TV programs in one week each year. The analysis has shown that TV advertising as a domain of Lithuanian language use is not being lost and the situation hasn’t changed over the years. There are almost no only English commercials. Most of the commercials are a mix of Lithuanian and English codes, while English is mostly used in the product names. There are few English slogans and not much other information in English in the corpus. It turned out that there might be a special strategy for the localization of commercials in Lithuania. The oral form of the commercials is more Lithuanized than the written form. The slogans and the product names are presented in translation or explained in Lithuanian. At the same time, the written part of the commercials can have more information in English. Some English insertions most likely have a symbolic function to make an impression that the product advertised is valuable or modern. The use of English in commercials may have the purpose of communicating prestige and especially targeting at an audience with a high social status or young people

The paper introduces the results of an investigation into spoken Lithuanian based on the Corpus of Spoken Lithuanian and carried out in Vytautas Magnus University. In the course of investigation the interrogative utterances used in spontaneous language were classified according to function and structure. The quantitative analysis of the data accessed from the Corpus of Spoken Lithuanian was based on a special computer program CHILDES. The results have shown that spoken Lithuanian gives preference to closed interrogative utterances rather than open interrogative utterances. Closed interrogative utterances in most cases use no interrogative particles; utterances with interrogative particles are much less frequent. In the latter subgroup interrogative particles mostly occur in the utterance-initial (e.g. ar, gal etc.) rather than utterance-final position (e.g. taip, ne, ane etc.). In the class of open interrogative utterances adverbial modifier utterances prevail; in the latter subclass interrogative utterances of the adverbial modifier of place dominate.

Straipsnyje siekiama apžvelgti anglakalbių ir besimokančių anglų kalbos studentų priešpriešos konektorių vartojimą. Medžiagą sudaro šiuo metu Vilniaus universiteto Anglų filologijos katedroje kaupiamas besimokančiųjų anglų kalbos tekstyno (ICLE - International Corpus of Learner English) lietuviškasis potekstynis (LICLE) ir pagal analogiškus kriterijus sudarytas gimtakalbių anglų kalbos vartotojų tekstynas (LOCNESS - Louvain Corpus of Native English Essays). Kontrastyvinės analizės metodu atliktame tyrime siekiama išsiaiškinti: (1) ar tiesioginis priešpriešos žymėjimas konektoriais yra vienodai paplitęs anglų kaip svetimojoje ir gimtakalbių kalboje ir (2) ar tiriamuose darbuose konektoriai yra vartojami tose pačiose sakinio ir teksto vietose. Ypatingas dėmesys skiriamas LICLE tekstyne dažniausiai pasitaikančiam konektoriui however ‘vis dėlto, tačiau’. Gauti rezultatai rodo, kad nors kiekybiniai priešpriešos konektorių vartojimo skirtumai nėra statistiškai reikšmingi, šios kategorijos konektorių pasiskirstymas tekste ir sakinyje LICLE ir LOCNESS tekstynuose skiriasi. Kai kuriais atvejais LICLE tekstyne pastebimos interkalbai būdingos vartojimo tendencijos. This paper shows an attempt to present the analysis of contrastive connectors in advanced Lithuanian learners’ and native speakers’ English writing. For the purpose of the study LICLE corpus (Lithuanian subcorpus of ICLE (International Corpus of Learner English)) was used. A comparison is made with the native speakers’ data obtained from the British segment of LOCNESS (Louvain Corpus of Native English Essays). Several comparisons are made with the American and the A-level segments of LOCNESS as well. The central research questions are (1) whether advanced Lithuanian learners openly mark contrastive relations in the same way to natives and (2) whether text and sentence distribution of contrastive connectors is the same in the corpora under consideration. A special attention is paid to the use of however, which is the most commonly used contrastive connector and occupies the first place among the top ten connectors in the LICLE corpus. The obtained results indicate that though there is no statistically significant difference in the quantitative use of contrastive connectors, their distribution patterns in LICLE to a greater or lesser extent differ from those of the native speakers’. The Lithuanian learners, for example, significantly overuse contrastive connectors in a non-preferred sentence-initial position whereas the native speakers’ preferred sentence-medial position is significantly underused. This tendency is not characteristic only of the Lithuanian learners of English and could be considered a common phenomenon of the interlanguage.

The paper attempts to analyse the intelligibility of dialectal discourse. The analysis is based on anonymous questionnaires designed according to the principles suggested by Dennis R. Preston. The experiment was performed in several ethnic regions of Lithuania. Its overall sample includes 548 respondents. The a priori conceptualization of dialect intelligibility is related to a particular native polyglot horizon of the respondents. Only 1.39% of all female respondents and 2.39% of all male respondents a priori regard dialectal speech as completely unintelligible. Their comments help identify the image of dialectal speech within the following scenario: if I do not understand dialect X, no dialectal expression is intelligible . 69.44% of the female respondents and 59.62% of the male respondents think that dialectal speech is only partially intelligible . 19.44% of the female respondents and 20.77% of the male respondents claim that dialectal speech is nearly unintelligible . Thus dialectal speech could be described as partially intelligible due to its affinity to standard language (Mar6M10: part of the vocabulary is similar to that of standard language ) or to the respondent's language (KauĄžM23: because the majority of words sound alike ). Such arguments regarding the intelligibility of dialectal discourse are based on deductive reasoning (UkmDM32: since this language is nonetheless Lithuanian and therefore intelligible ). Only 9.72% of the female respondents and 16.92% of the male respondents regarded dialectal speech as easily intelligible . However, such data is not enough to qualify dialectal speech as a speech code which does not require adequate knowledge and competence. Such distribution of the responses leads to a conclusion that young language users are not merely passive supporters of their own speech code. In fact, while qualifying dialectal speech as a distinct code of others mainly represented by the elder members of the speech community, young respondents place their own speech code in opposition to the described dialectal speech code. The data also shows that distinguishing young representatives of a particular region of Lithuania as those who understand the code of their native dialect better than any other member of the language community is hardly possible.

This volume includes articles based on linguistic papers given at the International Conference marking the 40th anniversary of the Department of English Philology and the Department of German Philology of Vilnius University held 18-20 September 2008. The articles cover a large variety of linguistic topics ranging from theoretical to applied, from historical to contemporary dimensions of language study. Many linguists seem to give preference to the contrastive axis of study which often offers a framework of research opening a multitude of vistas onto the same data or phenomena. We are grateful to all contributors of the volume: guests of the Conference, teachers and doctoral students of the Department of English Philology and the Department of German Philology. Our special thanks go to our Teachers—professors of the Departments who worked in the Departments in the years of Soviet occupation and whose dedication and energy made this anniversary a reality. We are also grateful to the sponsors of the Conference without whose generosity the event would have been impossible: the Lithuanian Foundation for Culture at the Ministry of Culture, Emmy Huetemann Fund, the Embassy of Austria in Lithuania, UAB Alumnus, VU Faculty of Philology, VU Saturday School of English and VU Department of Translation Studies.

The state-of-the-art teaching of languages is based on the communicative method which emphasizes teaching English through English (Willis 1981). However, the idea of abandoning the native tongue is too stressful to many learners, who need a sense of security in the experience of learning a foreign language. In the past, the prevalence of grammar-translation method led to an extraordinary phenomenon: students were unable to speak fluently after having studied the language for a long time. For this reason, translation has been defined as “uncommunicative, boring, pointless, difficult, and irrelevant” (Duff, 1994). Recently there has been a revival of interest to translation due to the shift of its emphasis – to using a mother tongue as a resource for the promotion of language learning. Translation method develops three qualities essential to any language learning: accuracy, clarity, and flexibility (Duff 1994). Therefore, translation can serve as a tool for improving language skills. The goals of the paper are, firstly, to examine students’ perceptions of mother tongue application and mental translation in learning English for Specific Purposes (ESP), and secondly, to describe the activities which raise learners’ awareness of language use. Comparison between the L1 and L2 through translation can help learners to activate language usage and serve as a tool to polish up learners’ English.

Anglų ir lietuvių kalbų gretinamoji veiksmažodžių/predikatų opozicija atskleidžia sisteminį tarpusavio ryšį tarp veikslų, kurie yra morfologiškai ir leksiškai užkoduoti veiksmažodžių formose. Gramatinė laiko morfemų reikšmė viena pati galutinai nenustato laiko sąvokos sakinyje šiose kalbose. Sakinio predikacijoje užkoduota eigos ir įvykio veikslo rezultatinė reikšmė veiksmažodžių, kurie pažymi paprastą veiksmą. Gramatinį veikslą ribojantys veiksniai būdingi tik veiksmažodžiui. Lietuvių kalboje sakinio veiksmažodžio (predikato) veikslas reiškiamas įvairiais priešdėliais ir priesagomis. Kadangi gramatinė laikų išraiška neįgauna tos paèios interpretacijos vertime, laikai yra apibūdinami kaip priklausomi reiškiniai nuo konteksto. Sakinio faktoriai veikia gramatinio veikslo interpretaciją, išreikštą veiksmažodžiais, sugretinus abi skirtingų sistemų kalbas. Būtojo laiko veiksmažodžiai nebūtinai nurodo būtąjį laiką, o esamojo laiko veiksmažodžiai ne visada nurodo tą laiką, kuris sakinyje yra pasakytas. Šiame darbe nagrinėjama keletas techninės kalbos veiksmažodžio (predikato) kaip sakinio dalies esamojo ir būtojo laikų raiškos atvejų, atskleidžiant eigos ir įvykio veikslo rezultatinių formų atitikmenis tipinėje sintaksinėje aplinkoje. Gretinamoji analizė atlikta remiantis mokslinės-techninės inžinerijos tekstais bei jų vertimais ir yra pagrįsta struktūriniu (gramatiniu) ir teksto semantiniu požiūriu. The English and Lithuanian languages show a systematic correlation between a grammatically expressed opposition of aspects lexically and morphologically encoded in verb forms. English and Lithuanian are encoding aspectual predication syntactically and located at the interface of inflectional morphology and lexical semantics. When dealing with aspect it is important to make differences between grammatical and lexical expressions of the internal time concept of a situation. The indication of the verb tense for different situations to refer to progressive or perfect aspects in English and Lithuanian is a major problem for translators. The paper deals with the aspectual system of the verb as the predicate: translating and indicating time references of tenses their analytic and synthetic forms mostly do not match up on a one-to-one basis in such different languages as English and Lithuanian. The results of the translation analysis have a practical application in comparative syntax and typological linguistics.

The term grammatical metaphor is new in linguistics. It was introduced by M.A.K. Halliday in his monograph “An Introduction to Functional Grammar” (1985). The present paper concentrates on nominalized non-gerundive material processes, their semantic and syntactic functions in scientific discourse. Semantically, the sentence functions as a grammatical device for describing a situation. A situation typically consists of three components: processes, participants and circumstances. Sentences which encode the information are of two types: semantically congruent, when the semantic functions play primary syntactic roles, and semantically non-congruent, when semantic functions play secondary syntactic roles. This type of change of semantic functions is called grammatical metaphorization, and the syntactic unit that demonstrates this change is a grammatical metaphor. Grammatical metaphors can be inherent (obligatory) and non-inherent (non-spatial and spatial). Non-inherent semantic functions are more common in scientific discourse. The pragmatic usefulness of the process of metaphorization can be accounted for by the fact that it allows us to make more participants. The use of such participants has the effect of condensing information within the sentence; it contributes to language economy and often serves as a means of cohesion.

The paper sets out to examine the relevance of the concept of ‘contact’ and/or ‘(the top of) the surface’ in the explication of the meaning of on in English and ant in Lithuanian. The investigation of a corpus of English and Lithuanian data revealed that the term is largely superfluous and imprecise, also in many cases a result of interpreting larger strings of context and an outcome of realising the overriding concept of ‘support’, underlying the prototypical meaning of on and ant.

The present paper reports the results of one part of a study conducted on the native language of three Estonian-English bilingual children living in Britain. This part focuses on object case marking. The study found that the native language of these children demonstrated English influence in their systematic overuse of the partitive to mark direct objects in Estonian. The plausibility of regarding this as a transfer effect is supported by two considerations. First, the children have limited exposure to Estonian speakers in England, so that English has become their dominant language. Second, the children’s simplification of object marking patterns conforms to the much simpler English pattern. The primary subjects were asked to translate 40 English sentences (with 43 object contexts) into Estonian. A set of Estonian control subjects were given a completion task with the same sentences in Estonian. The results of the study revealed that the primary subjects overwhelmingly used the partitive in marking direct objects, even in contexts where either the genitive or nominative marking was required. The control subjects demonstrated a consistent use of the three object cases in appropriate contexts.