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Language and Linguistics According to Krystyna Pisarkowa (1932–2010) Krystyna Pisarkowa’s rich output is characterised by a variety of forms and a wide range of topics, as well as an innovative interpretation of linguistic phenomena. The following paper can be described as biographical and substantive. The text contains certain facts from Pisarkowa’s life that are connected with certain spheres of her scientific activity in which she succeeded, references to people who played a significant role in her life, as well as development of her research interests. The publications which are mentioned in the paper have been selected according to Pisarkowa’s attitude to language, its essence, pragmatic-functional-stylistic variety, as well as potential context and purpose which lies beyond its typical usage. Moreover, an attempt has been made at reconstructing Pisarkowa’s views on the range, shape and place of linguistics among humanistic disciplines.

MULTIASPECTUALITY OF THE NOTION OF CONCEPTUALIZATION IN RONALD LANGACKER’S GRAMMAR: FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF A USER OF COGNITIVE TERMINOLOGY The paper presents the scope of understanding of the notion of conceptualization, a notion that belongs to the elementary toolbox of R. Langacker’s cognitive grammar. The author shows the different perspectives of viewing conceptualization, and discusses ways of defining the term. By contrasting it with other terms from the paradigm of cognitive semantics (among others, categorization, construal, profiling, conceptualizer, spekaer, addressee, usage event), which Langacker refers to while describing the processes of conceptualization, the paper reveals the placement and status of conceptualization in cognitive grammar.

The Observer and His Position in Tadeusz Borowski’s Short Story Odwiedziny (‘The Visit’) The article is an analysis of Tadeusz Borowski’s short story Odwiedziny (‘The visit’). It focuses on linguistic and narrative devices through which the speaker influences the recipient’s perception, and so shapes the reading of his work. The first part is introductory, it presents the goals of the paper. The next part recalls the most important existing interpretations, both of Borowski’s literary output as a whole, and of the text at hand. They form the starting point to an analysis of the position of the character-narrator with regard to the events he is describing, and to the relation between the author, the narrator, and the main character of the story. These considerations constitute the third part of the present paper. It begins with a citation of the full text of the story, and is followed by the main argument announced in the title which refers to Ronald Langacker’s cognitive grammar and takes into special consideration such notions as scene, current discourse space, and vantage point. The closing part of the paper contains conclusions, contrasted with the theses put forward in the context of Borowski’s work, as well as suggestions of possible directions of further analysis of the story within the framework of cognitive linguistics.

Professor Zenon Klemensiewicz as the Editor of “Język Polski” The paper presents the activity and achievements of Professor Zenon Klemensiewicz as the editor of the “Język Polski” journal (‘The Polish Language’), the official publication of The Society of Friends of the Polish Language (Towarzystwo Miłośników Języka Polskiego). Klemensiewicz became the editor in the end of 1958, and performed his duties until his death in a plane crash, on April 2, 1969. The author identifies the most important of Klemensiewicz’s achievements at the position of the editor: the extension of the editorial board of the journal, the introduction of new authors and numerous papers representing the most recent (in the 1960s) linguistic trends, such as structural and generative linguistics, text linguistics, press discourse analysis, as well as the increase of the circulation of the journal and its importance for the Polish linguistic community as well as for other groups of its readers.

The Notion of Meaning and Its Scope in Zenon Klemensiewicz’s Conception of Syntax The goal of the paper is to reconstruct and analyse Z. Klemensiewicz’s views on the place that so- -called ‘relative meaning’ occupied in his conception of syntax. Klemensiewicz distinguished 21 types of relative meanings and gave examples of their grammatical and lexical markers. His works, reminded in this paper after nearly half a century from their publication, are treated as documents of historical value.

Why is the Distinction between Suffix and Desinence Worth Preserving? (a reply to M. Stachowski’s paper The terms “suffix” and “desinence” among Polish grammatical terms)This paper is an answer to M. Stachowski’s article The terms “suffix” and “desinence” among Polish grammatical terms; it presents a different point of view. It points out that the terms mentioned in the title are not only used separately within the sub-disciplines of morphology, i.e. in research concerning inflection and word-formation, but also, due to their functions, make possible the distinction between lexicon and syntax, as well as the structuring of the lexicon. They also play a role in glottodidactics. An analysis of some derivatives, coupled with an interpretation of the terms extracted from linguistic compendia concerning Polish and French, shows that the distinction between a suffix and a desinence is both simple and useful. The attributes of a suffix are: 1) changing the meaning of the base; 2) absence of changes during inflection; 3) position before the ending (desinence). The second of the analysed terms does not possess these properties.

The Linguistic and Cultural Image of Masculinity in Tomasz Raczek’s FeuilletonsIn this paper, the author presents the linguistic layer of Tomasz Raczek’s feuilletons published in the “Wprost” weekly. Analysed are the various linguistic means, phraseologisms, and lexemes occurring in Raczek’s texts, which showcase masculine and non-masculine social attitudes, and thereby the subjective value system represented by the author of the “Ekran osobisty” (‘Personal screen’) series of feuilletons. Moreover, the paper presents the narrative strategies of Raczek’s feuilletons, revealing the linguistic and cultural image of masculinity in Raczek’s texts: the culture of intertextuality and conceptual metaphors.

Phraseological Calques, Semi-calques and Hybrids in the Language of the Bilingual Community of Old Believers in PolandThe paper is an attempt to create the definitions of and delimitations between the terms calque, semi-calque, and phraseological hybrid, based on the material collected among the bilingual community of Old Believers in Poland. Many scientfic papers have been written on calques, semi-calques, and phraseological hybrids, contributing to a better understanding of those linguistic phenomena, and deepening the possibilities of their interpretation. Calques, semi-calques, and lexical hybrids have been described in a quite satisfactory way; with reference to phraseology, however, theoretical and methodological discussions are still lacking. Their correct interpretation is key for an analysis of the phraseological store of the bilingual community of Old Believers in Poland. For more than half a century, their Russian dialect has been subjected to an incessant, strong influence of Polish, resulting in the appearance of an increasingly large number of elements borrowed from Polish, especially in the lexical system: borrowings, lexical calques, as well as phraseological calques and semi-calques.

The Past and the Present of Research into Cracow PolishThe paper presents the history of research into the urban spoken Polish of Cracow. Its most intensive period fell between 1976 and 1991. The research project was initiated by Professor M. Karaś. After his untimely death in 1977, the work was directed by Professor B. Dunaj. It was twin-track; both collective and individual studies were carried out. Under the supervision of B. Dunaj, five doctoral theses have been written; in total, nine books have been published: four collective and five individual ones. Some collective works have not been published, i.a. Słownik frekwencyjny nieoficjalnej odmiany polszczyzny mówionej (‘A frequency dictionary of an unofficial variety of spoken Polish’). Also other projects grew out of the research into the language spoken in Cracow, e.g. Słownik współczesnego języka polskiego (1996; ‘A dictionary of contemporary Polish’). In the first decade of the 21st century, B. Dunaj and M. Mycawka conducted research into regional vocabulary, focusing primarily on theoretical problems. Under the supervision of B. Dunaj, 28 unpublished monographies have been prepared on the subject of regional words in the speech of inhabitants of selected towns (mainly in Lesser Poland). In 2018, the dictionary Powiedziane po krakowsku. Słownik regionalizmów krakowskich (‘Said like in Cracow. A dictionary of Cracow regional words’, ed. by D. Ochmann and R. Przybylska) has been published, growing out of and referring to previous research. The present paper presents the controversial methodological problems related to research into regional vocabulary.

Dialect in Upper Silesian Urban SpaceThe paper presents ways in which linguistic messages are stylized to the local dialect in the space of Upper Silesian towns. The multitude of examples is a testimony to fashion for Silesian-ness, a turn towards locality and opposition to globalization. The phenomenon is related to quest for identity and the state and status of Silesian speech. The author discusses the role of towns in sociolinguistic research, and the notion of linguistic landscape. The paper presents inscriptions observed in Upper Silesia: place names, product names, official messages, posters and billboards (including political and advertisement ones), exhibitions, inscriptions on walls and on clothes.

Emotive-Evaluative Germanisms in the Kuyavian Dialect: Names of Persons The article contributes to the knowledge on the sources of lexical borrowings from German into Polish dialects. The subject of the analysis includes selected names of persons that are Germanisms, characterized by expressiveness, and documented in the Kuyavian dialect. The vocabulary of this region has never been studied in this aspect. The material was taken from the 1st Volume of The Dialect and Culture Dictionary of Kuyavia, and from its file. The term “Germanism” is understood broadly in this paper. Germanisms are considered not only as proper borrowings from the German language and dialects, but also as derivatives which were created in the native Kuyavian land on the basis of German original forms, using various nominative techniques. Four ways of penetrating the German influence into the Polish language were indicated. Various criteria were used in the analysis of these German loans: formal, etymological, semantic and geographical ones. A typology of expressivisms, developed by Stanisław Grabias, was utilised. The article presents seventeen Germanisms in the Kuyavian dialect that define a man in terms of his physicalness, psyche and material status, in the context of the comparison with the semantically similar vocabulary in other regions of Poland and with non-general varieties of Polish. These are names that mostly reflect negative valuation (e.g. gałgan, fagas, huncwot, rojber, ekensztyjer, lofer, lump), and that are already present in the meanings and expressiveness of the German basic forms.

The Place of Catchwords and Slogans in Political Communication The paper discusses the function of catchwords and slogans, as well as the role that these forms play in political communication. Not only are they short and catchy sayings, but they also carry important meanings – from the point of view of both the government and the society. Political slogans and catchwords are a significant part of political campaigns, politicians’ presentations and election programs, as well as social movements and protests. As multimodal carries, they can be examined with the use of systemic functional linguistics methods. The analysis and conclusions are based on the collection of more than 3100 items: political catchwords from Polish political discourse, excerpted from written (ephemera, press) and oral texts (protests, demonstrations, live presentations) published in 1918–2018. The collection is the part of the project which aims at publishing A Dictionary of Political Catchwords.

The Category of Style in Metalexicographic ResearchThe paper discusses the category of style and the validity of its application to dictionaries. The author begins by considering the question of textuality of dictionaries and whether it is possible to analyse them in line with other texts. By invoking concrete examples, she indicates works which use diverse means of expression to convey the same content, which suggests that the category of style may also be applied in the field of lexicography. The author attempts to determine what it would involve to identify style in a dictionary, which components of style may come into play here, and examines the possibilities of observation and interpretation of selected components. Finally, the paper discusses the usefulness of automatized stylometric tools in stylistic research into dictionaries.

Flax Processing and Weaving Vocabulary in the Dialects of the Grodno Region, Against the Background of Podlasie DialectsFor the first time in the literature, the present paper compares flax processing and weaving vocabulary found strictly in the Polish–Belorussian borderland which was formerly part of a single Grodno county. The source material comprises well-known Polish lexicological works, and also a work on Grodno lexicon by Apanas Cychun which has not as yet been taken into consideration. Thanks to this, the paper notes lexemes unattested in previous corpora of dialectal vocabulary, and adds precision to the information contained in them.

Professor Witold Mańczak as a Hispanist The paper is devoted to the figure of Professor Witold Mańczak and his long-term collaboration with Hispanic studies in Cracow; hence the appearance of motifs related to his didactic and scientific work, but also a personal recollection of Professor as a teacher and a linguist. The paper is completed by a bibliography of those of his works which directly or indirectly discuss the Spanish language.

From Unlawful Bed to Extramarital. From the History of Polish Legal VocabularyThe paper presents the various names given in Polish legal terminology to children born outside of marriage, from the oldest times to the interwar period. The process of stabilization of indices of this concept was a relatively long one. In mediaeval legal texts, we find multiple variants, most of which mirror Latin terms, e.g. nieprawego łoża ‘of unlawful bed’, nieczystego łoża ‘of impure bed’, niecnie narodzony ‘dishonourably born’, niedobrze urodzon ‘ill-born’, and also the neologism wyleganiec. Synonymous terms survive into the Middle Polish stage (16th – mid-18th c.), the most frequent ones being złego łoża ‘of bad bed’, niedobrego łoża ‘of wrong bed’, niepoczciwego łoża dzieci ‘children of indecent bed’. In the 19th century, two terms compete: dzieci nieprawego łoża ‘children of unlawful bed’ and, introduced in the translation of the Napoleonic Code, dzieci naturalne ‘natural children’; by the end of the 19th century, dzieci nieślubne ‘unmarried children’ become more widespread. A characteristic feature of the analysed terms is the presence of an evaluating element, which mirrorrs the contemporary legal status in which extramarital children were treated as a worse category and discriminated against. Finally, the paper draws attention to the differences between the civil and the canonic law, with regard to their choice of terms for ‘love children’.

An Explanation of Interconnections Between Text and DiscourseThe paper aims to explain the interconnections between text and discourse. It presents some views on discourse and text, and concludes that discourse has the superior and multicodal character in relation to text. An assumption is made that text has a dual nature; it is a product of language, and part of communication. Moreover, the author makes an attempt to describe the role of context as a kind of mechanism which links the level of text with the area of discourse, thus rendering the text comprehensible. In addition, the paper emphasizes the cognitive processes involved in the comprehension of text through context.

Key Words of Culture, as Names of Salient and Entrenched Concepts, and the Problems of Lexical SynonymyThe paper discusses a method for discovering important concepts of culture through the process of scrutinizing the most numerous sets of synonyms (which are treated as names of entrenched and salient concepts of the given language’s culture), and subsequently combining them in a set of cultural concept networks. The author focuses on the evolution of cultural concepts and the linguistic material from 19th and 20th c. dictionaries of synonyms, and the Polish version of WordNet which served as the base for the analysis. The paper shows the evolution of some of the concepts of culture established in the 19th c. and still vivid in present day discourse of collective identity.

Word-formational features of verbs denoting change of position with respect to the axis of the body The paper presents word-derivational features of verbs which co-occur with się and denote a change in the position of the body with respect to its vertical axis. The analysis shows how differences in the morphological structure of these verbs influence the manner in which the change of the position of the body proceeds. Moreover, the paper shows which elements of the meanings of verbs are carried by prefixes with which these verbs combine. The article also shows which of the morphological forms of the analysed verbs are primary, and what derivational relations hold between them and their derivatives.

On the etymological dictionary of Romance languages (Dictionnaire Étymologique Roman, DÉRom) The paper presents to Polish linguists of various specializations the Romance etymological dictionary Dictionnaire Étymologique Roman (DÉRom) which, despite having existed for several years, remains entirely unknown in Poland. Its goal is to reconstruct the Romance protolanguage, protoroman, on as many levels as possible. Its novelty lies in the application of the historical-comparative method to modern Romance forms, and reconstructing Proto-Romance forms based on them. Departure from the traditional Latin-leaning etymology brings qualitatively new results to the field of Romance diachronic linguistics. The paper concludes with examples of two dictionary entries.

The proverb Diabeł tkwi w szczegółach ‘the devil is in the detail’ in contemporary Polish. Rhetoricity, mystification, stereotype The paper is devoted to the functioning of the proverb diabeł tkwi w szczegółach in multi-genre texts of contemporary Polish. The author discusses the rhetoric potential of the phrase, used when there are problems with the realization of some undertaking. Senders like to use it in the beginning (in the title) and at the end of the text. The persuasive efficiency of an utterance containing the discussed phrase is raised by granting the status of a proverb to the sentence diabeł tkwi w szczegółach, and in particular, by garnishing it with such adjectives as dawne, stare, tradycyjne (‘ancient’, ‘old’, ‘traditional’), or a stylistic qualifier jak to mówią chłopi ‘as peasants say’. In actual fact, the antiquity and popularity of this maxim are a mistification. The last part of the paper is devoted to a reconstruction of the semantics of the proverb, especially with regard to the formally similar phrase bóg tkwi w szczegółach ‘the god is in the detail’.

In the absence of sources. On the traces of ACI in Rozmyślania dominikańskie The paper presents syntactic analyses of Polish sentences containing the Latin construction of infinitive with accusative. All the sentences are from a single Old Polish monument, Rozmyślania dominikańskie, a Biblical-apocryphal narration of the Passion of Jesus. The author wonders what more than ten ACI constructions found in Rozmyślania can tell us about the character and the type of sources, and about how the writer made use of them. The paper takes into consideration the visible genetic multilayeredness of the text, the syntactic build of specific constructions, their semantics, and their distribution. As the comparative background, the paper uses another Old Polish apocrypha whose sources are well researched and described, Rozmyślanie przemyskie.

Baudouin de Courtenay: A Precursor of More than Structural Linguistics The paper contrasts Jan Baudouin de Courtenay’s approach to language with Neogrammarian views on the one hand, and Ferdinand de Saussure’s approach on the other. Similarly to the Swiss linguist, de Courtenay understood language as a system, but his views on the langue–parole and synchrony– diachrony relationships were more complex. He can also be considered a precursor of sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, ethnolinguistics, and even gender linguistics.

Artykuł poświęcono najważniejszemu pojęciu w słowotwórstwie, pojęciu motywacji, w odniesieniu zwłaszcza do gniazdowych opisów słowotwórczych. W pierwszej części tekstu omówiono trudności występujące w tradycyjnym słowotwórstwie opisowym oraz w gniazdowym słowotwórstwie języka ogólnopolskiego (motywacja wzajemna, wielomotywacyjność, motywacja pośrednia i bezpośrednia, podstawowa i towarzysząca, motywacja równorzędna). W kolejnej, właściwej części rozważań przedstawiono problemy motywacyjne wynikające ze specyfiki materiału gwarowego, sformułowano także metodologiczne propozycje postępowania w tworzeniu trudniejszych w analizie gniazd. W zakończeniu podjęto kwestię zależności modelu słowotwórstwa i intuicji (świadomości, kompetencji) słowotwórczej użytkowników języka. The paper discusses word formation’s most important notion, i e the motivation, in respect to nest-oriented descriptions The first part presents the difficulties which arise in the traditional, as well as in the nest-oriented description of word formation of general Polish (mutual motivation, multiple mo-tivations, indirect and direct motivation, base and accompanying motivation, equivalent motivation)In the second part, these problems of motivation, resulting from the specificity of dialectal material, are being discussed This part also formulates methodological suggestions about the creation of cer-tain nests which are more difficult to analyse The final part tackles the question of mutual depend-ence between the model of word formation, and the speaker’s word formation intuition (awareness, competence)

Is the Synchronic Description of the Word-Formation System in Polish Complete? The paper describes sixty years of the development of studies on synchronic word formation in Poland. The period is divided into two stages: 1959–1999, and 1999–2019. The first part recalls the comprehensive, profound characterization of the forty-year period from 1959 to 1999, given by Mirosław Skarżyński in Powstanie i rozwój polskiego słowotwórstwa opisowego. The second part is devoted to the twenty years from 1999 to 2019, and presents the most important changes that occurred in this period in the description of our (sub)discipline of linguistics. It highlights M. Skarżyński’s influence on the direction and essence of those changes, as the personality who inspired and penned groundbreaking works in the field, especially as the editor and collaborator on the third volume of SGS. Not all of the findings presented in this dictionary are sufficiently known in the scientific millieu, primarily due to the dispersion of works that continue previous research. Only after a synthesis of the newest accomplishments is prepared, will it be possible to give a positive answer to the question in the title.

The Evolution of Criteria for a Grammatical Classification of Lexemes (Relative Pronouns vs Conjunctions) The paper discusses the evolution of the part-of-speech classification of Polish lexemes, and presents the changes in the criteria used to distinguish relative pronouns and conjunctions. The characterization has been based on important works in the field of theoretical Polish grammar, including textbooks, from the beginning of the 20th to the beginning of the 21st century. The author distinguishes two breakthroughs in the history of grammar, the first caused by the influence on research into grammar of the connotation theory, and the other by the influence of the metatext theory.

LEMKO ETYMOLOGIES: PART 5 The present paper is the fifth part in the Lemko etymologies series; analysed in it are words beginning with letters Л, М, Н, О: ластівниця, люштати, лябати, лябдати, лянкорити ся, маляґа, маранча, масеса, маскати, мджурити, медера, металец, микытаня, м(л)юзґра, молиґати, мocур, мотлочыти, муцикы, нарабяти, нарубы, нахыр, нездобачкы, непек, ніверити, нозгри/нозґрі, нютер, обатурити ся, обгартати, обтавкати, одкырхнути ся, одразити, одчезнути, озниця, окара, окрясти, осуга, отлак. Authors attempt to establish the origin of those words, taking into account data from etymological, historical, and dialectal dictionaries of Slavic languages and dialects, as well as from the neighbouring non-Slavic languages, thereby outlining a broad comparative background. They propose additions and corrections to previous etymological findings regarding some of the discussed words.

On creation of place names in the light of folk etymology The paper discusses the ways in which Polish place names were created, in the light of their folk etymologies. The author uses the example of selected morphological reinterpretations of place names from various regions of Poland. By comparing folk-etymologized place names, and the words and expression that they indicate as bases for derivation, the paper shows that, in fact, folk etymology divides Polish toponyms into similar structural categories as scientific etymology: the primary, the secondary, and the compound. Very few re-etymologized place names do not fit into any of these types. In details, however, pseudoetymologies differ from the results of onomastic research with regard to the methods of creation of place names. Among other differences, the former tend to prefer certain structural types, especially compounds, and display a greater degree of tolerance for phonetic differences.

From dialect to discourse. The Polish-Czech border in Zaolzie in linguistic research Zaolzie, i.e. the Czech part of Cieszyn Silesia since 1920, is the place of linguistic and cultural contact between an indigenous Polish population that speaks a dialect stemming from the south-Silesian dialect of Polish, and a Czech population that speaks various dialects of Czech, or the local dialect. Genetically identical to the dialect of Cieszyn in Poland, the Zaolzie dialect has been for many years under an increasing influence of Czech, especially in the area of vocabulary. Also changing is the mentality and the sense of ethnicity of the Poles of Zaolzie; this is particularly visible in the younger generation. The goal of this paper is to show the main streams in the study of the linguistic state of Zaolzie, in the past and in the present communicative situation influenced by various psychosocial and cultural factors. The paper emphasizes that researchers in language, ethnic identity and mentality face the important task of collecting and analysing written texts of various genres, and of preserving and recording public, informal and familial oral statements, based on which it will be possible to describe how the discourse of ethnic identity in Zaolzie has been shaped from 1920 till this day.

Elements of grammatical information in the dictionary edited by T. Lehr-Spławiński, as an example of socio-cultural factors in lexicography The paper examines the convention of formulating the inflectional information, especially pertaining to grammatical cases, in Trzaska, Evert, and Michalski’s Dictionary of Polish that was edited in the interwar period by T. Lehr-Spławiński. The author attempts to determine what factors informed the use of a lexicographically innovative solution that nonetheless did not upset the linguistic tradition, and has proven both very functional and influential for future conventions in Polish lexicography. The analysis of nominal inflection presented in the dictionary is compared to analyses in numerous academic and popular grammars, mostly from the interwar period or widely known at the time, and in the context of the publishing layout of the editor who contracted Lehr-Spławiński. The aim of the paper is to highlight the significant role that research on the sociocultural context plays in metalexicographical studies and in a better understanding and interpretation of dictionaries, not so much as linguistic compendia, but also as texts of culture.

Again on numeral-nominal phrases in subject position The paper presents a formal account of sentences with a numeral-nominal subject and an adjectival complement, such as Tych pięciu facetów zostało zabitych ‘These five guys were killed’. The agreements in such sentences are highly idiosyncratic. To cope with them in the framework of a certain formal grammar of Polish, a number of extra means are proposed: special “numeral” realization of the nominal phrase in subject position, special “plural” adjectival complement, special rules that introduce the adjectival phrase in genitive, special valence frames for such strange phrases, and, finally, a special mechanism of interphrasal gender-number agreements. The paper argues for individual treatment of idiosyncrasies, instead of an artificial account in terms of general principles.

The Honorificative Formula in 18th c. Polish Letters The paper discusses, from the formal, semantic, pragma- and sociolinguistic point of view, the honorificative formula that constituted one of the components of the final part of an epistolary Polish text of the 18th century. Most commonly, it took the shape of a conventionalized phrase which consisted of the preposition z (‘with’), an adjective, and a noun; e.g. z prawdziwym szacunkiem ‘with true respect’. The formula was syntactically dependent, as it was part of a larger whole – nearly always the subscription, i.e. the broadly understood signature of the author of the letter. The lexical composition of the formula showed considerable diversity. The nouns that constituted it include estymacja ‘esteem’, poważenie ‘reverence’, szacunek ‘respect’, weneracja ‘veneration’, and others. The attributes that described the main stem of the formula were also characterized by notable semantic diversity. Moreover, the honorificative formula could also appear in the form of a Latin quotation, e.g. profundo cultu. The usage of the formula depended on social and situational factors, namely it was used in letters to people of equal or higher social status (e.g. to members of princely families), as well as in highly official situations.

Similarity disturbances in the linguistic communication of autistic persons, and what follows from them The paper refers to Roman Jakobson’s famous work on the bipolar nature of language, Two Aspects of Language and Two Types of Aphasic Distrubances. Every user of language leads a discourse, or discourses, by continuously switching between metaphor and metonymy, i.e. between imaging by similarity and focusing on contiguity. Jakobson observed that different types of aphasia are located between two polar types. In the first type, the relation of similarity disappears; in the second, the relation of contiguity. Metaphor is alien to the disturbance in the sphere of similarity; metonymy to the disturbance in the sphere of contiguity. Autistic persons do not understand metaphors, though the relation of contiguity remains undisturbed; this leads to specific cognitive consequences. The observations made in this paper require further detailed studies.

How to study vowels using acoustic methods? A proposal of a method based on relative formant frequencies and the cardinal vowels model The first part of the paper proposes a method of studying (or, more precisely, of recognizing) oral vowels, using the so-called relative formant frequencies. First, we describe the traditional method of acoustic study of oral vowels, together with its limitations. Next, we introduce the assumptions of the proposed method where, unlike in the traditional approach, a set of fixed models is used. The comparison, instead of being reduced to establishing whether two sets of vowels match, requires a distance to be calculated between each vowel and each model. The paper introduces the notion of relative formant frequency (denoted f′) which was used in the comparisons to minimize the impact of individual articulatory variation on the outcome of the analysis. It was defined as the proportion between, on the one hand, the difference between the absolute frequency of the given formant, and its minimal value observed in actual pronunciations, and on the other hand, the difference between the minimal and the maximal frequency of the formant, as observed in pronunciations. In order to establish the f′ of model vowels, we used the cardinal vowels pronounced by several British phoneticians (including Daniel Jones).

Communicology – theoretical overview and practical problems, in the light of teaching of communication skills The article discusses communicology, a research discipline that has been gaining increasing popularity lately, both among scholars specializing in the problems of human communication (psychologists, philosophers, linguists), and among rhetoric and auto presentation coaches and trainers. The first part of the paper presents problems related to the definition of the term communicology, and gives a wider description of two models of communication: the code and the orchestral model. This part also introduces the axioms of communication proposed by the scholars of the Palo Alto school (Paul Watzlawick, Janet Beavin, and Don Jackson), as they are the foundation of the modern, pragmatic approach to communication as a feedback process in which the role of the receiver is no less important than that of the sender. The second part of the paper focuses on selected problems related to teaching of practical communication skills. It discusses the questions of communicative competence (as understood by Dell Hymes), non-verbal communication, development of assertiveness and empathy, and also the problem of communicative effectiveness and of the purpose of perfecting communicative skills (interpreted from the point of view of the ritual communication model of James Carey and Eric Rothenbuhler).

On faithfulness and nuisance, and just by the way, on metaphor (A reply to prof. Elżbieta Muskat-Tabakowska’s criticism) The present paper is a reply to a polemic published by prof. Elżbieta Muskat-Tabakowska under the title Pies wierny, ale uciążliwy, czyli o metaforze (Leśmiana i nie tylko) (‘A dog loyal but tiresome: on metaphor in Leśmian’s poetry and beyond’), in which she critically reviews this authors book Metaforyka Leśmiana. Analiza lingwistyczna (‘Metaphors in Leśmian’s poetry (A linguistic analysis)’). Most importantly, this paper rejects the principal accusation that the book is but a manifestation of its author’s dislike of the cognitive theory of metaphor. It also rebuts a series of minor complaints by showing that they are based on subjective interpretations and arbitrary assessments which are inconsistent with the letter of the text, and not supported by any proof. The author explains why he believes that the cognitive theory of metaphor is unhelpful in the empirical analysis of data.

Foreign elements in the Polish lexicon, using the example of Słownik elektroniczny jednostek frazeologicznych (SEJF) ‘Electronic Dictionary of Multi-Word Units’ The paper discusses the presence of foreign phraseological units and of their grammatical features in phraseological dictionaries of general Polish. The author adduces lexicographical descriptions of specific phrasemes from Polish and foreign words dictionaries, and compares them with corpus data. Based on these analyses, she proposes a set of detailed solutions which were implemented in Słownik elektroniczny jednostek frazeologicznych (SEJF) ‘Electronic Dictionary of Multi-Word Units’ that she is preparing. SEJF is going to be the first electronic grammatical dictionary of Polish idiomatic phrases to provide paradigms for the described units. The paper closes with a list of one hundred analysed phrasemes, each with the assigned lexeme class and, in the case of nouns, also the gender value.

Polish-foreign bilingualism in Poland and outside of it. Research development and perspectives The paper summarizes research on Polish-foreign bilingualism in Poland and outside of its borders. It takes various works into account, regardless of whether their authors place bilingualism in the centre of their research interests, or only mention it in the background of considerations on the use of Polish in the given national or ethnic minority. Apart from works on modern Polish-foreign bilingualism, the author discusses research into bi- and multilingualism in Polish linguistic history. Particular attention is given to the Polish-French bilingualism of Polish romantic authors of the 19th century. The final part of the paper reviews the methodology of research into bilingualism, especially those methods that extend beyond the analysis of linguistic contacts, and combine research into bilingualism with cultural, anthropological and humanistic linguistics. The paper closes with remarks on the perspectives of research on bi- and multilingualism in Poland.

Connectivity of the Adjective były ‘Former’ with NounsThe paper discusses the grammatical and semantic characteristics of the adjective były ‘former’, with a particular regard to its connectivity with nouns. The adjective były is an element of a nominal group, it connotes a noun on the right side, and cannot be used in the function of a predicate. It connects with certain groups of common nouns which denote people and artifacts, as well as with geographical names; it does not connect with names of animals or plants.

The Language and Culture of Polish HighlandersThe paper discusses the methodological and practical lexicographic solutions implemented in J. Kąś’s Ilustrowany leksykon gwary i kultury podhalańskiej (‘An illustrated lexicon of Podhalan dialect and culture’). In view of its theoretical and material values, this twelve-volume work occupies a significant place in Slavic dialectal lexicography. It is a so-called full dialectal dictionary, but at the same time an encyclopaedia of Podhalan folklore. Linguistic explanations entwine with description of the folk culture. The various ways in which ethnographic information is presented constitute an indisputable innovation, and it must be added that one of those ways are numerous photographs. A reliable, and also clearly designed dictionary has without doubt a great scientific and cultural significance. It can be used not only by dialectologists and ethnographers, but by anyone with interest in folk culture.

Kazimierz Nitsch’s Dialectal DictionaryThe paper presents the profile of Kazimierz Nitsch on the occasion of the 60th anniversary of his death. Particular attention was given to Nitsch’s achievements in connection with modern dialectal lexicography.

Niniejszy artykuł dotyczy zidentyfikowanej w 2017 r. kartoteki słownika etnolingwistycznego Jana Karłowicza, która obecnie jest przechowywana w Archiwum Nauki PAN i PAU w Krakowie. Celem tekstu jest omówienie zawartości kartoteki na tle współczesnych dokonań etnolingwistyki, z jej dwoma najważniejszymi osiągnięciami: Słownik stereotypów i symboli ludowych pod red. Jerzego Bartmińskiego oraz Славянские древности pod red. Nikity I. Tołstoja. The paper describes the card index of J. Karłowicz’s ethnolinguistic dictionary, identified in 2017 and currently held at the Archive of Science of Polish Academy of Sciences and Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences in Cracow. The aim is to discuss the contents of the index against the background of the achievements of contemporary Slavic ethnolinguistics and its two greatest accomplishments: Słownik stereotypów i symboli ludowych (ed. J. Bartmiński) and Славянские древности (ed. N.I. Tolstoj).

On the Use of Colon in Old Utalitarian Literature (Using the Example of Olbrycht Strumieński and Stanisław Strojnowski’s Treatises on Ponds)The aim of this paper is to present a description of the appearance of the colon with respect to its lexical and syntactic surroundings. Following the example of the authors of prescriptive works on punctuation, attention has been paid to both right- and left-hand context in which the colon is used. Also, examples in which the colon is the only indicator of the relation between segments of the text, have been made note of. The analysis is based on works by Olbrycht Strumieński (1573) and Stanisław Strojnowski (1609, 1636) which represent utalitarian literature, devoted to the problems of pond management.

On Some Possible Traces of Duale Tantum in Indo-European LanguagesThe paper is devoted to three selected Indo-European nouns that can be considered as dualia tantum. On the basis of lexical data preserved in historical Indo-European languages, I have reconstructed three probable archetypes:(1) IE. *ḱelī- (< PIE. *ḱel-ih1) f. duale tantum ‘two-component body of a human or animal’ is precisely attested in Avestan sairi f. du. tant. ‘two solid components of the human and animal body, i.e. the skin together with meat and bones; body, dead body, corpse’. The primitive dual form seems to appear in Old Indic (Vedic) śárīram n. ‘body, body frame, solid parts of the body, pl. bones’, also ‘a dead body’ (a derivative noun created by means of the suffix -ra- < IE. *-lo-), cf. also Pali sarīra- n. ‘body’, Prakrit sarira- n. ‘id.’; West Pahari sarīr, Old Gujarati saïra, sayara n. ‘body’.(2) IE. *agu̯ sī- f. sg. ‘axe’ (< PIE. *h2egu̯ s-ih1 f. du. tant. ‘double axe, two-edged battle-axe’) can be seen not only in the Germanic languages (e.g. Gothic aqisi f. ‘axe’, Old High German acchus ‘id.’, English axe ‘id.’), but also in some Greek-Latin derivatives (see Greek ἀξῑ́νη f. ‘double axe, twoedged battle-axe’, Modern Greek αξίνα f. ‘hoe, mattock, pickaxe’, Latin ascia f. ‘axe, trowel’). The original meaning ‘double axe, two-edged item’ is firmly confirmed by the Greek data.(3) IE. *oldhī- f. sg. ‘a kind of boat’ (< PIE. *h3eldh-ih1 f. du. tant. ‘a primitive boat built from two troughs’ ← *h3eldh- f. ‘trough’) is reflected in Tocharian AB olyi ‘boat’, Lithuanian eldijà f. ‘a canoe, a boat hollowed out from one trunk’, dial. aldijà f. ‘id.’, Old Church Slavic ladija f. ‘πλοῖον, σκάφη / navis, navicula’, also alъdija ‘id.’, Old Czech lodí f. ‘ship, boat’, Polish łódź f. ‘boat’ and so on. The basic noun *h3eldh- ‘trough’ is securely attested in the Germanic languages, cf. Norwegian alde f. ‘wooden trough’, Danish olde ‘id.’ (< Proto-Germanic *aldōn- f.).

Syntactic and Semantic Features of dotądThe paper discusses the expression dotąd. The author makes a distinction between contextual (endophoric) and consituational (exophoric) uses. The analysis is limited to the latter because exophoric uses allow for a locative and temporal interpretation. The author distinguishes two units of language: a pronoun which replaces a temporal or locative expression, and the relator dotąd, aż which indicates a temporal relation between the events described in component sentences.

W nielicznych publikacjach, na ogół pisanych przy okazji jubileuszy, na temat najstarszego i ogromnie zasłużonego dla popularyzacji wiedzy o języku, ale też dla samej nauki o języku polskim Towarzystwie Miłośników Języka Polskiego pomijana jest od dziesięcioleci postać Andrzeja Gawrońskiego (1885-1927), wybitnego sanskrytologa, językoznawcy, profesora Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego, choć, jak wskazują materiały archiwalne, odegrał on bardzo ważną rolę w tworzeniu Towarzystwa, był też autorem wyjściowej wersji jego statutu. Artykuł, napisany na podstawie zachowanych a Archiwum Nauki PAU i PAN listów A. Gawrońskiego do Kazimierza Nitscha z lat 1919-1921), listów K. Nitscha do językoznawców, Henryka Ułaszyna i do Antoniny Obrębskiej-Jabłońskiej, a także na podstawie nielicznych materiałów drukowanych z lat 1918-1927 przedstawia udział Gawrońskiego w tworzeniu TMJP. Towarzystwo Miłośników Języka Polskiego (‘Society of Friends of the Polish Language’) is the oldest such society and greatly distinguished for the popularization of knowledge about the language, and also for the knowledge about Polish itself The few publications devoted to it, written mostly on the occasion of anniversaries, tend to overlook the figure of Andrzej Gawroński (1885-1927), an outstanding expert in Sanskrit, a linguist, and a professor of the Lviv University, despite the fact that archive materials show that he played a very significant role in the creation of the Society, and even penned the preliminary version of its charter This paper presents Gawroński’s part in the forming of TMJP; it is based on extant letters from A Gawroński to Kazimierz Nitsch from years 1919-1921 (Archive of Science of PAN and PAU in Cracow), letters from K Nitsch to linguists Henryk Ułaszyn and Antonina Obrębska-Jabłońska, and also on the few printed materials from years 1918-1927.

Play on Signs and Meanings in Polish Artistic Theatre PostersThe paper begins with the assumption that an artistic theatre poster is composed of two interacting semiotic systems: the language (the title of the play, the name of the author, the place of stage production, the name or signature of the author of the poster, the year of its creation), and the image (graphic signs, meaningful typography, graphical arrangement, colour scheme). These two codes are interwoven; linguistic signs often fulfill the function of the image in multimodal messages, and vice versa. The application of the category of multimodality allows us to superimpose the meanings of iconic images, mental images, and images hidden behind words, when reading the content of a poster. In artistic theatre posters, verbal and visual signs play with senses and allow the reader to activate different contexts, which leads to a multitude of interpretations. Recipients are not obliged to read the creative, multimodal message in a single, prescribed way. They are free to follow various parallel interpretative routes. Signs of the poster play with each other and with the reader, and the entire meaning of the multimodal message can change as one of the multiple senses of a word, an image, or a colour is singled out.

Remarks on the Elision of Labial Consonants in Contemporary Polish MediaIntervocalic elision of labial consonants seems to be one of the most common types of distorting the pronunciation of contemporary Polish words in colloquial speech. This phenomenon was described by Biedrzycki (1978) as typical of everyday speech and unknown to media or in official situations. Now it has entered the world of electronic media on a large scale and has become something of a norm among television presenters as well as experts and actors. All of these speakers tend to employ articulatorily incorrect Polish in official situations. This paper includes a preliminary classification of contexts where the deletion of labials takes place, and as such it is a continuation of Jaskuła (2014). Moreover, an attempt has been made to determine the reasons for elision. Analyses of similar phenomena which can be found in the phonological literature concerning both Polish and other phonological systems have also been taken into account with a view to discovering whether or not there is an interplay between phonetics and phonology in this respect.

On the Need for the Term Vernacularization in Polish Historical Linguistic ResearchIn European science, the thought about the beginnings of the written national language is accompanied by the study of the process of vernacularization – understood as the entering of the national language into (at first exclusively Latin) texts. This paper aims to show the usefulness of the term vernacularization in Polish historical linguistic research. The author analyses how it is used and interpreted in European Mediaeval studies, and indicates and discusses selected Old Polish monuments which instantiate the various stages of the process.

Do We Speak Simpler when Using a Simpler Language? Formally Instrumental Phrases which Characterize SpeechThe paper describes the connectivity and the meaning of the formally instrumental phrase językiem (jakimś)/(czyimś) which co-occurs with the metatextual mówiąc. Depending on the filling of the valence spot, it can fulfill different functions: a) indicating the choice of the best code or register for the given communicative intent, b) indicating the source of a cited statement, c) informing how to interpret, according to the speaker, what has been said previously in the text. As is the case with other formally instrumental phrases counted as adverbials, here too a regular substitution of those forms with adverbial phrases cannot be observed. The restrictions, however, are probably not of lexical nature (the lack of the appropriate adverbials or adverbial constructions); rather, they result from the fact, that the meaning of the noun is relevant (the meaning of mówiąc slangiem cyklistów is different as jak cykliści). Sometimes there can be also observed a semantic emancipation of some formally instrumental forms (innymi słowy, (jednym) słowem).