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El cadmio(Cd) es un elemento químico que puede causar graves efectos en la salud tras su ingestión, por lo cual existen muchas normativas que controlan y/o evitan la ingestión del mismo. Productos como el cacao, han reportado cantidades traza de Cd, generando un grado de afectación en la economía nacional, debido a que este producto, reporta rangos que no son permitidos en otros países; conllevando a una desestabilización de este sector de la economía. Investigaciones de procedencia de este elemento, destacan fuentes naturales como el vulcanismo, la atmosfera y océanos; pero también reconocen otras fuentes antropogénicas como los combustibles fósiles y por la adición de fertilizantes a base de roca fosfórica. Este último es el caso a estudiar, ya que este material, se caracteriza por tener un gran contenido nutricional (P2O5, CaO y MgO); convirtiéndolo en un material atractivo para la industria agropecuaria, pero además puede incluir cantidades trazas de cadmio total y soluble dentro de su estructura. Esta investigación tiene el propósito de establecer la existencia y analizar el comportamiento del Cd soluble, en rocas fosfóricas empleadas como fertilizantes, resaltando diversos yacimientos localizados sobre la cordillera oriental Colombiana. Las principales zonas de explotación de roca fosfórica del país, están localizadas sobre la cordillera oriental, en los departamentos de Boyacá, Norte de Santander y Huila, y se caracterizan por presentar un alto valor nutricional. Finalmente, se pretende explicar desde el punto de vista geológico el comportamiento del Cd soluble en las zonas de interés, la forma como este puede solubilizarse, los diversos factores que pueden condicionar las variaciones que estos puedan presentar y como los ambientes de formación juegan un papel relevante en esta problemática que está afectado el sector cacaotero del país.

Pitaya [Stenocereus pruinosus Otto ex Pfeiff.) Buxb.] produces fruit with high commerciali-zation potential, but its shelf life is limited to few days. The objective of this study was to apply biopolymeric coatings to extend the shelf life of pitaya fruits at 25 °C and under refri-geration at 12 °C. The following variables were handled at each temperature: fruits without any treatment (Control), fruits coated with 1,000 ppm emulsion of thyme essential oil, and fruits coated with 1% emulsion of guar gum, 7.5% beeswax, and 7.5% oleic acid, without essential oil, and with 1,000 ppm of thyme essential oil. Shelf life was 6 d at 25 °C, without the beneficial effect of coatings, but increased to 15 d with refrigeration and coatings based on guar gum, beeswax, and oleic acid, since fungal growth was delayed, and weight loss was reduced. This allowed fresh appearance without significant modification of color, firmness, pH, total soluble solids, titratable acidity, contents of soluble phenols and betalains, and antioxidant capacity., La pitaya [Stenocereus pruinosus Otto ex Pfeiff.) Buxb.] produce un fruto con alto potencial de comercialización, pero con vida útil de pocos días. El objetivo del presente estudio fue aplicar recubrimientos biopoliméricos para alargar la vida de anaquel de frutos de pitaya a 25°C y bajo refrigeración a 12°C. En cada temperatura se manejaron frutos sin ningún trata-miento (Control), frutos tratados con emulsión de 1,000 ppm de aceite esencial de tomillo y frutos recubiertos con emulsión de 1% goma guar, 7.5% cera de abeja y 7.5% ácido oleico, sin aceite esencial y con 1,000 ppm de aceite esencial de tomillo. La vida útil fue de 6 d a 25°C, sin el efecto benéfico de los recubrimientos, pero aumentó a 15 d con refrigeración y uso de recubrimientos de goma guar, cera de abeja y ácido oleico, pues retrasó el desarrollo fúngico y redujo la pérdida de peso, permitiendo apariencia fresca sin modificación significativa de color, firmeza, pH, sólidos solubles totales, acidez titulable, contenido de fenoles solubles y betalaínas y capacidad antioxidante

Background. In well treated human immunodeficiency virus infection (HIV), there is a residual immune activation and immune exhaustion that may contribute to increased risk of comorbidities. T-cell immunoglobulin mucin domain-3 (Tim-3) is an inhibitory molecule involved in HIV-associated T-cell dysfunction. The Tim-3 can be cleaved to soluble Tim-3 (sTim-3) that may serve as a soluble marker of immune exhaustion. Methods. We measured sTim-3 with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay DuoSets in a cross-sectional cohort of 1010 people with HIV (PWH) on antiretroviral therapy (ART), and 76 controls from the Copenhagen Co-Morbidity in HIV Infection (COCOMO) study, and in a longitudinal cohort of 60 PWH before and during ART. Results. In the cross-sectional cohort, levels of sTim-3 were elevated in PWH on ART compared with controls, especially in hepatitis C virus (HCV)-coinfected individuals, and were associated with HCV viremia and inflammation. In the longitudinal cohort, pretreatment sTim-3 correlated with HIV viral load and decreased after ART initiation. Pretreatment sTim-3 correlated inversely with CD4 counts, but it did not predict immunological response in multivariable analyses. Conclusions. Levels of sTim-3 decreased after ART initiation. In a cross-sectional cohort, levels of sTIM-3 were higher in PWH than in controls and were independently associated with HCV coinfection and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, representing a potential link between immune exhaustion, inflammation, and risk of comorbidities.

Background. In well treated human immunodeficiency virus infection (HIV), there is a residual immune activation and immune exhaustion that may contribute to increased risk of comorbidities. T-cell immunoglobulin mucin domain-3 (Tim-3) is an inhibitory molecule involved in HIV-associated T-cell dysfunction. The Tim-3 can be cleaved to soluble Tim-3 (sTim-3) that may serve as a soluble marker of immune exhaustion. Methods. We measured sTim-3 with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay DuoSets in a cross-sectional cohort of 1010 people with HIV (PWH) on antiretroviral therapy (ART), and 76 controls from the Copenhagen Co-Morbidity in HIV Infection (COCOMO) study, and in a longitudinal cohort of 60 PWH before and during ART. Results. In the cross-sectional cohort, levels of sTim-3 were elevated in PWH on ART compared with controls, especially in hepatitis C virus (HCV)-coinfected individuals, and were associated with HCV viremia and inflammation. In the longitudinal cohort, pretreatment sTim-3 correlated with HIV viral load and decreased after ART initiation. Pretreatment sTim-3 correlated inversely with CD4 counts, but it did not predict immunological response in multivariable analyses. Conclusions. Levels of sTim-3 decreased after ART initiation. In a cross-sectional cohort, levels of sTIM-3 were higher in PWH than in controls and were independently associated with HCV coinfection and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, representing a potential link between immune exhaustion, inflammation, and risk of comorbidities.

2'-Aminomethyl-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT-MeNH2) showed unsatisfactory results when its polymerization occurred in organic solvent in our previous report. Therefore, a water-soluble EDOT derivative was designed by using hydrochloric modified EDOT-MeNH2 (EDOT-MeNH2·HCl) and electropolymerized in aqueous solution to form the corresponding polymer with excellent electrochromic properties. Moreover, the polymer was systematically explored, including electrochemical, optical properties and structure characterization. Cyclic voltammetry showed low oxidation potential of EDOT-MeNH2·HCl (0.85 V) in aqueous solution, leading to the facile electrodeposition of uniform the polymer film with outstanding electroactivity. Compared with poly(2′-aminomethyl- 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT-MeNH2), poly(2′-aminomethyl-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene salt) (PEDOT-MeNH3 +A-) revealed higher efficiencies (156 cm2 C-1), lower bandgap (1.68 eV), and faster response time (1.4 s). Satisfactory results implied that salinization can not only change the polymerization system, but also adjust the optical absorption, thereby increase the electrochromic properties.

2'-Aminomethyl-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT-MeNH2) showed unsatisfactory results when its polymerization occurred in organic solvent in our previous report. Therefore, a water-soluble EDOT derivative was designed by using hydrochloric modified EDOT-MeNH2 (EDOT-MeNH2·HCl) and electropolymerized in aqueous solution to form the corresponding polymer with excellent electrochromic properties. Moreover, the polymer was systematically explored, including electrochemical, optical properties and structure characterization. Cyclic voltammetry showed low oxidation potential of EDOT-MeNH2·HCl (0.85 V) in aqueous solution, leading to the facile electrodeposition of uniform the polymer film with outstanding electroactivity. Compared with poly(2′-aminomethyl- 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT-MeNH2), poly(2′-aminomethyl-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene salt) (PEDOT-MeNH3 +A-) revealed higher efficiencies (156 cm2 C-1), lower bandgap (1.68 eV), and faster response time (1.4 s). Satisfactory results implied that salinization can not only change the polymerization system, but also adjust the optical absorption, thereby increase the electrochromic properties.

2'-Aminomethyl-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT-MeNH2) showed unsatisfactory results when its polymerization occurred in organic solvent in our previous report. Therefore, a water-soluble EDOT derivative was designed by using hydrochloric modified EDOT-MeNH2 (EDOT-MeNH2·HCl) and electropolymerized in aqueous solution to form the corresponding polymer with excellent electrochromic properties. Moreover, the polymer was systematically explored, including electrochemical, optical properties and structure characterization. Cyclic voltammetry showed low oxidation potential of EDOT-MeNH2·HCl (0.85 V) in aqueous solution, leading to the facile electrodeposition of uniform the polymer film with outstanding electroactivity. Compared with poly(2′-aminomethyl- 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT-MeNH2), poly(2′-aminomethyl-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene salt) (PEDOT-MeNH3 +A-) revealed higher efficiencies (156 cm2 C-1), lower bandgap (1.68 eV), and faster response time (1.4 s). Satisfactory results implied that salinization can not only change the polymerization system, but also adjust the optical absorption, thereby increase the electrochromic properties.

2'-Aminomethyl-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT-MeNH2) showed unsatisfactory results when its polymerization occurred in organic solvent in our previous report. Therefore, a water-soluble EDOT derivative was designed by using hydrochloric modified EDOT-MeNH2 (EDOT-MeNH2·HCl) and electropolymerized in aqueous solution to form the corresponding polymer with excellent electrochromic properties. Moreover, the polymer was systematically explored, including electrochemical, optical properties and structure characterization. Cyclic voltammetry showed low oxidation potential of EDOT-MeNH2·HCl (0.85 V) in aqueous solution, leading to the facile electrodeposition of uniform the polymer film with outstanding electroactivity. Compared with poly(2′-aminomethyl- 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT-MeNH2), poly(2′-aminomethyl-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene salt) (PEDOT-MeNH3 +A-) revealed higher efficiencies (156 cm2 C-1), lower bandgap (1.68 eV), and faster response time (1.4 s). Satisfactory results implied that salinization can not only change the polymerization system, but also adjust the optical absorption, thereby increase the electrochromic properties.

A highly adhesive and thermally stable copolyimide (P84) that is soluble in organic solvents is newly applied to silicon (Si) anodes for high energy density lithium-ion batteries. The Si anodes with the P84 binder deliver not only a little higher initial discharge capacity (2392 mAh g-1), but also fairly improved Coulombic efficiency (71.2%) compared with the Si anode using conventional polyvinylidene fluoride binder (2148 mAh g-1 and 61.2%, respectively), even though P84 is reduced irreversibly during the first charging process. This reduction behavior of P84 was systematically confirmed by cyclic voltammetry and Fourier-transform infrared analysis in attenuated total reflection mode of the Si anodes at differently charged voltages. The Si anode with P84 also shows ultrastable long-term cycle performance of 1313 mAh g-1 after 300 cycles at 1.2 A g-1 and 25 °C. From the morphological analysis on the basis of scanning electron microscopy and optical images and of the electrode adhesion properties determined by surface and interfacial cutting analysis system and peel tests, it was found that the P84 binder functions well and maintains the mechanical integrity of Si anodes during hundreds of cycles. As a result, when the loading level of the Si anode is increased from 0.2 to 0.6 mg cm-2, which is a commercially acceptable level, the Si anode could deliver 647 mAh g-1 until the 300th cycle, which is still two times higher than the theoretical capacity of graphite at 372 mAh g-1.

A highly adhesive and thermally stable copolyimide (P84) that is soluble in organic solvents is newly applied to silicon (Si) anodes for high energy density lithium-ion batteries. The Si anodes with the P84 binder deliver not only a little higher initial discharge capacity (2392 mAh g-1), but also fairly improved Coulombic efficiency (71.2%) compared with the Si anode using conventional polyvinylidene fluoride binder (2148 mAh g-1 and 61.2%, respectively), even though P84 is reduced irreversibly during the first charging process. This reduction behavior of P84 was systematically confirmed by cyclic voltammetry and Fourier-transform infrared analysis in attenuated total reflection mode of the Si anodes at differently charged voltages. The Si anode with P84 also shows ultrastable long-term cycle performance of 1313 mAh g-1 after 300 cycles at 1.2 A g-1 and 25 °C. From the morphological analysis on the basis of scanning electron microscopy and optical images and of the electrode adhesion properties determined by surface and interfacial cutting analysis system and peel tests, it was found that the P84 binder functions well and maintains the mechanical integrity of Si anodes during hundreds of cycles. As a result, when the loading level of the Si anode is increased from 0.2 to 0.6 mg cm-2, which is a commercially acceptable level, the Si anode could deliver 647 mAh g-1 until the 300th cycle, which is still two times higher than the theoretical capacity of graphite at 372 mAh g-1.

A highly adhesive and thermally stable copolyimide (P84) that is soluble in organic solvents is newly applied to silicon (Si) anodes for high energy density lithium-ion batteries. The Si anodes with the P84 binder deliver not only a little higher initial discharge capacity (2392 mAh g-1), but also fairly improved Coulombic efficiency (71.2%) compared with the Si anode using conventional polyvinylidene fluoride binder (2148 mAh g-1 and 61.2%, respectively), even though P84 is reduced irreversibly during the first charging process. This reduction behavior of P84 was systematically confirmed by cyclic voltammetry and Fourier-transform infrared analysis in attenuated total reflection mode of the Si anodes at differently charged voltages. The Si anode with P84 also shows ultrastable long-term cycle performance of 1313 mAh g-1 after 300 cycles at 1.2 A g-1 and 25 °C. From the morphological analysis on the basis of scanning electron microscopy and optical images and of the electrode adhesion properties determined by surface and interfacial cutting analysis system and peel tests, it was found that the P84 binder functions well and maintains the mechanical integrity of Si anodes during hundreds of cycles. As a result, when the loading level of the Si anode is increased from 0.2 to 0.6 mg cm-2, which is a commercially acceptable level, the Si anode could deliver 647 mAh g-1 until the 300th cycle, which is still two times higher than the theoretical capacity of graphite at 372 mAh g-1.

A highly adhesive and thermally stable copolyimide (P84) that is soluble in organic solvents is newly applied to silicon (Si) anodes for high energy density lithium-ion batteries. The Si anodes with the P84 binder deliver not only a little higher initial discharge capacity (2392 mAh g-1), but also fairly improved Coulombic efficiency (71.2%) compared with the Si anode using conventional polyvinylidene fluoride binder (2148 mAh g-1 and 61.2%, respectively), even though P84 is reduced irreversibly during the first charging process. This reduction behavior of P84 was systematically confirmed by cyclic voltammetry and Fourier-transform infrared analysis in attenuated total reflection mode of the Si anodes at differently charged voltages. The Si anode with P84 also shows ultrastable long-term cycle performance of 1313 mAh g-1 after 300 cycles at 1.2 A g-1 and 25 °C. From the morphological analysis on the basis of scanning electron microscopy and optical images and of the electrode adhesion properties determined by surface and interfacial cutting analysis system and peel tests, it was found that the P84 binder functions well and maintains the mechanical integrity of Si anodes during hundreds of cycles. As a result, when the loading level of the Si anode is increased from 0.2 to 0.6 mg cm-2, which is a commercially acceptable level, the Si anode could deliver 647 mAh g-1 until the 300th cycle, which is still two times higher than the theoretical capacity of graphite at 372 mAh g-1.

An active edible film from soluble soybean polysaccharide (SSPS) incorporated with different concentrations of Zataria multiflora Boiss (ZEO) and Mentha pulegium (MEO) essential oils was developed, and the film’s optical, wettability, thermal, total phenol and antioxidant characteristics were investigated, along with their antimicrobial effectiveness against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella typhimurium. The film’s colour became darker and more yellowish and had a lower gloss as the levels of ZEO or MEO were increased. Antioxidant activity of the films was determined using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and ferric-reducing antioxidant power assays. DPPH was reduced in the range of 19.84–74.12% depending on the essential oil type and concentration. Film incorporated with 3% (v/v) ZEO showed the highest DPPH radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant power (IC50 = 4188.60 ± 21.73 mg/l and EC50 = 8.86 ± 0.09 mg/ml, respectively), compared with the control and MEO added film. Films containing ZEO were more effective against the tested bacteria than those containing MEO. S. aureus was found to be the most sensitive bacterium to both ZEO or MEO, followed by B. cereus and E. coli. A highest inhibition zone of 387.05 mm2 was observed for S. aureus around the films incorporated with 3% (v/v) ZEO. The total inhibitory zone of 3% (v/v) MEO formulated films was 21.98 for S. typhimurium and 10.15 mm2 for P. aeruginosa. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis revealed a single glass transition temperature (Tg) between 16 and 31 °C. The contact angle increased up to 175% and 38% as 3% (v/v) of ZEO or MEO used: it clearly shows that films with ZEO were more hydrophobic than those with MEO. The results showed that these two essential oils could be incorporated into SSPS films for food packaging.

We report a simple one step protocol for the preparation of fairly monodisperse and highly water-soluble magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONs) through a co-precipitation method using a novel multifunctional, biocompatible and water-soluble polymer ligand dodecanethiol-polymethacrylic acid (DDT-PMAA). DDT-PMAA owing to its several intrinsic properties, not only efficiently controls the size of the MIONs but also gives them excellent water solubility, long time stability against aggregation and oxidation, biocompatibility and multifunctional surface rich in thioether and carboxylic acid groups. The molecular weight and concentration of the polymer ligand were optimized to produce ultrasmall (4.6 +/- 0.7 nm) MIONs with high magnetization (50 emu g(-1)). The MIONs obtained with 1.5 mM DDT-PMAA (5330 g mol(-1)) are highly stable in solution as well as in dry powder form for an extended period of time. These MIONs show a high degree of monodispersity and are superparamagnetic at room temperature. The polymer ligand and MIONs@Polymer were characterized by GPC, H-1 NMR, DLS, TEM, FTIR-Raman, XRD, TGA and VSM. In order to demonstrate the bio-applications of these magnetic nanoparticles (NPs), their toxicity was determined by MTT assay and they were found to be non-toxic and biocompatible. Finally, MIONs were conjugated with the anti-cancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) and its efficacy, as a model drug delivery system, was determined using HepG2 cells. The efficiency of the drug-NP conjugates i.e., covalently bound DOX-MIONs and electrostatically loaded DOX/MIONs, was found to be significantly higher than that of the free drug (DOX).

We report a simple one step protocol for the preparation of fairly monodisperse and highly water-soluble magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONs) through a co-precipitation method using a novel multifunctional, biocompatible and water-soluble polymer ligand dodecanethiol-polymethacrylic acid (DDT-PMAA). DDT-PMAA owing to its several intrinsic properties, not only efficiently controls the size of the MIONs but also gives them excellent water solubility, long time stability against aggregation and oxidation, biocompatibility and multifunctional surface rich in thioether and carboxylic acid groups. The molecular weight and concentration of the polymer ligand were optimized to produce ultrasmall (4.6 +/- 0.7 nm) MIONs with high magnetization (50 emu g(-1)). The MIONs obtained with 1.5 mM DDT-PMAA (5330 g mol(-1)) are highly stable in solution as well as in dry powder form for an extended period of time. These MIONs show a high degree of monodispersity and are superparamagnetic at room temperature. The polymer ligand and MIONs@Polymer were characterized by GPC, H-1 NMR, DLS, TEM, FTIR-Raman, XRD, TGA and VSM. In order to demonstrate the bio-applications of these magnetic nanoparticles (NPs), their toxicity was determined by MTT assay and they were found to be non-toxic and biocompatible. Finally, MIONs were conjugated with the anti-cancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) and its efficacy, as a model drug delivery system, was determined using HepG2 cells. The efficiency of the drug-NP conjugates i.e., covalently bound DOX-MIONs and electrostatically loaded DOX/MIONs, was found to be significantly higher than that of the free drug (DOX).

We report a simple one step protocol for the preparation of fairly monodisperse and highly water-soluble magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONs) through a co-precipitation method using a novel multifunctional, biocompatible and water-soluble polymer ligand dodecanethiol-polymethacrylic acid (DDT-PMAA). DDT-PMAA owing to its several intrinsic properties, not only efficiently controls the size of the MIONs but also gives them excellent water solubility, long time stability against aggregation and oxidation, biocompatibility and multifunctional surface rich in thioether and carboxylic acid groups. The molecular weight and concentration of the polymer ligand were optimized to produce ultrasmall (4.6 +/- 0.7 nm) MIONs with high magnetization (50 emu g(-1)). The MIONs obtained with 1.5 mM DDT-PMAA (5330 g mol(-1)) are highly stable in solution as well as in dry powder form for an extended period of time. These MIONs show a high degree of monodispersity and are superparamagnetic at room temperature. The polymer ligand and MIONs@Polymer were characterized by GPC, H-1 NMR, DLS, TEM, FTIR-Raman, XRD, TGA and VSM. In order to demonstrate the bio-applications of these magnetic nanoparticles (NPs), their toxicity was determined by MTT assay and they were found to be non-toxic and biocompatible. Finally, MIONs were conjugated with the anti-cancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) and its efficacy, as a model drug delivery system, was determined using HepG2 cells. The efficiency of the drug-NP conjugates i.e., covalently bound DOX-MIONs and electrostatically loaded DOX/MIONs, was found to be significantly higher than that of the free drug (DOX).

We report a simple one step protocol for the preparation of fairly monodisperse and highly water-soluble magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONs) through a co-precipitation method using a novel multifunctional, biocompatible and water-soluble polymer ligand dodecanethiol-polymethacrylic acid (DDT-PMAA). DDT-PMAA owing to its several intrinsic properties, not only efficiently controls the size of the MIONs but also gives them excellent water solubility, long time stability against aggregation and oxidation, biocompatibility and multifunctional surface rich in thioether and carboxylic acid groups. The molecular weight and concentration of the polymer ligand were optimized to produce ultrasmall (4.6 +/- 0.7 nm) MIONs with high magnetization (50 emu g(-1)). The MIONs obtained with 1.5 mM DDT-PMAA (5330 g mol(-1)) are highly stable in solution as well as in dry powder form for an extended period of time. These MIONs show a high degree of monodispersity and are superparamagnetic at room temperature. The polymer ligand and MIONs@Polymer were characterized by GPC, H-1 NMR, DLS, TEM, FTIR-Raman, XRD, TGA and VSM. In order to demonstrate the bio-applications of these magnetic nanoparticles (NPs), their toxicity was determined by MTT assay and they were found to be non-toxic and biocompatible. Finally, MIONs were conjugated with the anti-cancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) and its efficacy, as a model drug delivery system, was determined using HepG2 cells. The efficiency of the drug-NP conjugates i.e., covalently bound DOX-MIONs and electrostatically loaded DOX/MIONs, was found to be significantly higher than that of the free drug (DOX).

A novel approach to induce disassembly of electroactive multilayer films fabricated by the layer by layer assembly technique is reported. Electroactive multilayer films are constructed using water soluble polythiophenes, i.e., negatively charged poly[ammonium (3-thienyl)ethoxypropanesulfonate] (SPT) and positively charged poly[3-(3'-thienyloxy)ethyltriethylammonium] (APT). "Induced" dissolution of the films in response to applied potential is investigated using a quartz crystal microbalance equipped with an electrochemical cell module (EC-QCM-D). Disassembly of the films is observed in response to three different potentials: +650, -650, and ±650 mV; however the time for dissolution varies as a function of the potential with films subject to +650 mV dissolving fully in 19 h compared to 42 h for films subject to -650 mV. These electroactive films and their controlled dissolution under applied potential represent an attractive architectural feature for bionic devices that could benefit from their conductivity and dissolution over time.

A novel approach to induce disassembly of electroactive multilayer films fabricated by the layer by layer assembly technique is reported. Electroactive multilayer films are constructed using water soluble polythiophenes, i.e., negatively charged poly[ammonium (3-thienyl)ethoxypropanesulfonate] (SPT) and positively charged poly[3-(3'-thienyloxy)ethyltriethylammonium] (APT). "Induced" dissolution of the films in response to applied potential is investigated using a quartz crystal microbalance equipped with an electrochemical cell module (EC-QCM-D). Disassembly of the films is observed in response to three different potentials: +650, -650, and ±650 mV; however the time for dissolution varies as a function of the potential with films subject to +650 mV dissolving fully in 19 h compared to 42 h for films subject to -650 mV. These electroactive films and their controlled dissolution under applied potential represent an attractive architectural feature for bionic devices that could benefit from their conductivity and dissolution over time.

In drug therapy, most therapeutic drugs are of low molecular weight and could freely diffuse in the biological milieu depending on the administration route applied. The main reason for the development of polymeric drug carriers is to obtain desired effects such as sustained therapy, local and controlled release, prolonged activity and reduction of side effects. Alternatively, polymeric carriers can be made bioerodible in order to be eliminated by natural ways after a certain time of therapy. Core-shell fibres from coaxial spinneret or emulsion electrospinning are good candidates for the development of such devices; however difficulties remain especially in controlling the release over a sustained period. Here, we present a novel technique combining coaxial and emulsion electrospinning to produce micro-structured core-shell fibres. The design of drug microreservoirs of variable size within the bulk of the fibre combined with a tailored diffusive barrier allows modulating the release kinetics of these novel carriers. A nearly constant and linear release of the model drug Levetiracetam (M w ≈ 170 g mol -1) from PLGA emulsion-coaxial electrospun fibres is observed over 20 days. This device is aimed to be implanted into the brain for the treatment of epilepsy and is an example of the new capabilities and the promising potential that emulsion-coaxial electrospinning can provide towards the development of future drug carriers.

In drug therapy, most therapeutic drugs are of low molecular weight and could freely diffuse in the biological milieu depending on the administration route applied. The main reason for the development of polymeric drug carriers is to obtain desired effects such as sustained therapy, local and controlled release, prolonged activity and reduction of side effects. Alternatively, polymeric carriers can be made bioerodible in order to be eliminated by natural ways after a certain time of therapy. Core-shell fibres from coaxial spinneret or emulsion electrospinning are good candidates for the development of such devices; however difficulties remain especially in controlling the release over a sustained period. Here, we present a novel technique combining coaxial and emulsion electrospinning to produce micro-structured core-shell fibres. The design of drug microreservoirs of variable size within the bulk of the fibre combined with a tailored diffusive barrier allows modulating the release kinetics of these novel carriers. A nearly constant and linear release of the model drug Levetiracetam (M w ≈ 170 g mol -1) from PLGA emulsion-coaxial electrospun fibres is observed over 20 days. This device is aimed to be implanted into the brain for the treatment of epilepsy and is an example of the new capabilities and the promising potential that emulsion-coaxial electrospinning can provide towards the development of future drug carriers.

In drug therapy, most therapeutic drugs are of low molecular weight and could freely diffuse in the biological milieu depending on the administration route applied. The main reason for the development of polymeric drug carriers is to obtain desired effects such as sustained therapy, local and controlled release, prolonged activity and reduction of side effects. Alternatively, polymeric carriers can be made bioerodible in order to be eliminated by natural ways after a certain time of therapy. Core-shell fibres from coaxial spinneret or emulsion electrospinning are good candidates for the development of such devices; however difficulties remain especially in controlling the release over a sustained period. Here, we present a novel technique combining coaxial and emulsion electrospinning to produce micro-structured core-shell fibres. The design of drug microreservoirs of variable size within the bulk of the fibre combined with a tailored diffusive barrier allows modulating the release kinetics of these novel carriers. A nearly constant and linear release of the model drug Levetiracetam (M w ≈ 170 g mol -1) from PLGA emulsion-coaxial electrospun fibres is observed over 20 days. This device is aimed to be implanted into the brain for the treatment of epilepsy and is an example of the new capabilities and the promising potential that emulsion-coaxial electrospinning can provide towards the development of future drug carriers.

A novel approach to induce disassembly of electroactive multilayer films fabricated by the layer by layer assembly technique is reported. Electroactive multilayer films are constructed using water soluble polythiophenes, i.e., negatively charged poly[ammonium (3-thienyl)ethoxypropanesulfonate] (SPT) and positively charged poly[3-(3'-thienyloxy)ethyltriethylammonium] (APT). "Induced" dissolution of the films in response to applied potential is investigated using a quartz crystal microbalance equipped with an electrochemical cell module (EC-QCM-D). Disassembly of the films is observed in response to three different potentials: +650, -650, and ±650 mV; however the time for dissolution varies as a function of the potential with films subject to +650 mV dissolving fully in 19 h compared to 42 h for films subject to -650 mV. These electroactive films and their controlled dissolution under applied potential represent an attractive architectural feature for bionic devices that could benefit from their conductivity and dissolution over time.

A novel approach to induce disassembly of electroactive multilayer films fabricated by the layer by layer assembly technique is reported. Electroactive multilayer films are constructed using water soluble polythiophenes, i.e., negatively charged poly[ammonium (3-thienyl)ethoxypropanesulfonate] (SPT) and positively charged poly[3-(3'-thienyloxy)ethyltriethylammonium] (APT). "Induced" dissolution of the films in response to applied potential is investigated using a quartz crystal microbalance equipped with an electrochemical cell module (EC-QCM-D). Disassembly of the films is observed in response to three different potentials: +650, -650, and ±650 mV; however the time for dissolution varies as a function of the potential with films subject to +650 mV dissolving fully in 19 h compared to 42 h for films subject to -650 mV. These electroactive films and their controlled dissolution under applied potential represent an attractive architectural feature for bionic devices that could benefit from their conductivity and dissolution over time.

A novel approach to induce disassembly of electroactive multilayer films fabricated by the layer by layer assembly technique is reported. Electroactive multilayer films are constructed using water soluble polythiophenes, i.e., negatively charged poly[ammonium (3-thienyl)ethoxypropanesulfonate] (SPT) and positively charged poly[3-(3'-thienyloxy)ethyltriethylammonium] (APT). "Induced" dissolution of the films in response to applied potential is investigated using a quartz crystal microbalance equipped with an electrochemical cell module (EC-QCM-D). Disassembly of the films is observed in response to three different potentials: +650, -650, and ±650 mV; however the time for dissolution varies as a function of the potential with films subject to +650 mV dissolving fully in 19 h compared to 42 h for films subject to -650 mV. These electroactive films and their controlled dissolution under applied potential represent an attractive architectural feature for bionic devices that could benefit from their conductivity and dissolution over time.

[EN] This chapter reviews some of the strategies that have been used to synthesize single walled carbon nanotubes having covalently bonded photoresponsive chromophores. In the first part, the synthetic route is discussed as well as the different characterization techniques and how the information gained by each of them has to be combined to have a more detailed information on the material. Emphasis is made on commenting the advantages of using short-soluble carbon nanotubes that can be more firmly characterized (particularly the occurrence of the covalent linkage) and how the covalent attachment reinforces considerably the interaction between the nanotube walls and the chromophore. The photophysics of the entities derived from the covalent functionalization of the carbon nanotubes by photoactive units is discussed in the second part. Examples are provided to show that single wall carbon nanotubes behave as semiconductors and behave accepting or donating electrons. Thus, in contrast to fullerenes that are always strong electron acceptors, the behavior of single wall carbon nanotubes in the photoinduced charge separation event depends on the nature of the partner attached covalently.

[EN] This chapter reviews some of the strategies that have been used to synthesize single walled carbon nanotubes having covalently bonded photoresponsive chromophores. In the first part, the synthetic route is discussed as well as the different characterization techniques and how the information gained by each of them has to be combined to have a more detailed information on the material. Emphasis is made on commenting the advantages of using short-soluble carbon nanotubes that can be more firmly characterized (particularly the occurrence of the covalent linkage) and how the covalent attachment reinforces considerably the interaction between the nanotube walls and the chromophore. The photophysics of the entities derived from the covalent functionalization of the carbon nanotubes by photoactive units is discussed in the second part. Examples are provided to show that single wall carbon nanotubes behave as semiconductors and behave accepting or donating electrons. Thus, in contrast to fullerenes that are always strong electron acceptors, the behavior of single wall carbon nanotubes in the photoinduced charge separation event depends on the nature of the partner attached covalently.

The aim of this projhect is to study the electronic properties of organic (carbon-based) semiconductor materials and to study electronic devices, such as FETs, made using these materials. Organic semiconductors offer a number of advantages including ease and low-cost of device fabrication and chemical versatility. While irganic display technologies and light emitting devices are currently on the market, organic transistors are still and active area of scientific research, particularly for applications requiring higher electrical mobility to enable faster switching.My research was focused on triethylsilylethynyl-anthradithiophene (TES-ADT), a small molecule organic semiconductor. TES-ADT can be dissolved in toluene and spin-cated onto pre-fabricated FET structures on a degenerately-doped silicon substrate, which is used as the gate. A 400nm thick thermally grown oxide is used to insulate the semiconductor gate from the Ti/Au source and drain leads. The as-deposited TES-ADT film is amorphous, and recent work by the Anthony group at the University of Kentucky has shown that this film can be crystallised by exposure toa solvent vapour, typically dichloroethane, leading to substantially imporved electrical characteristics of the TES-ADT FET and mobilities up to 1.5 * 10^-1 cm^2/Vs. In this thesis, I report research on an alternative route to crystallising TES-ADT films, namely a thermal anneal process. It involves heating the film to a temperature between 70 to 130 degrees (C), but less than the melting point of 154 degrees (C), obviating the need for the solvent anneal process. FET characteristics are obtained, with mobilities up to 4.72 * 10^-3 cm^2/Vs that are comparable to those obtained via the solvent anneal process and those obtained with other organic materials. This thesis contains substantial details relating to optimisation of the thermal anneal process, focussing heavily on polarized optical microscopy as a characterisation method. There was also some study i

The study aimed to evaluate the effect of rates of magnesium sulfate on the production and fruit quality of melon. The experiment was carried out in area located in the municipality of Baraunas - RN, from 10/15 to 12/28/2009. Was used the hybrid melon 'Florentino' belonging to the group cantaloupensis. The treatments consisted of four rates of magnesium sulfate (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg ha-1). The experimental design was randomized block with four replications. The characteristics evaluated were: fruit weight (kg), marketable yield (t ha-1), soluble solids (oBrix), firmness pulp, flesh pulp thickness, diameter of the inner cavity and length longitudinal and transverse of the fruit. Increasing of rates of magnesium sulfate did not affect the fruit weight, commercial yield, diameter of the inner cavity of the fruit and content of soluble solids (o Brix) in melon. Increasing rates of magnesium sulfate significantly interfered with the firmness and thickness of the pulp and length longitudinal and transverse in melon. Although satisfactory results for some characteristics of fruit quality is not recommended the application of magnesium sulfate in the melon hybrid Florentino in soils classified as Cambisol carbonate derived from limestone., O trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito de doses de sulfato de magnésio na produção e qualidade de frutos de melão. O experimento foi desenvolvido em área localizada no município de Baraúnas – RN, no período de 15/10 a 28/12/2009. Utilizou-se o híbrido de melão ‘Florentino’ pertencente ao grupo cantaloupensis. Os tratamentos foram constituídos por quatro doses de sulfato de magnésio (0, 30, 60 e 90 kg ha-1). O delineamento experimental foi o blocos casualizados, com quatro repetições. As características avaliadas foram: massa média do fruto (kg), produtividade comercial (t ha-1), sólidos solúveis totais (obrix), firmeza de polpa, espessura da polpa, diâmetro da cavidade interna do fruto e comprimento longitudinal e transversal. O aumento nas doses de sulfato de magnésio não interferiu significativamente na massa média do fruto, na produtividade comercial, no diâmetro da cavidade interna do fruto e no teor de sólidos solúveis totais (oBrix) no melão híbrido Florentino. O aumento nas doses de sulfato de magnésio interferiu significativamente na firmeza da polpa, na espessura da polpa e no comprimento longitudinal e transversal no melão híbrido Florentino. Apesar de resultados satisfatórios para algumas características de qualidade do fruto não se recomenda a aplicação sulfato de magnésio no meloeiro híbrido Florentino em solos classificado como Cambissolo háplico derivado de calcário., El objetivo del estudio fue evaluar el efecto de las dosis de sulfato de magnesio en la producción y calidad de los frutos de melón. El experimento se realizó en una zona situada en el municipio de Baraunas - RN, del 15/10 al 28/12/2009. Se utilizó el híbrido de melón 'Florentino' perteneciente al grupo cantaloupensis. Los tratamientos consistieron en cuatro dosis de sulfato de magnesio (0, 30, 60 y 90 kg ha-1). El diseño experimental fue de bloques al azar con cuatro repeticiones. Las características evaluadas fueron: peso del fruto (kg), rendimiento comercial (t ha-1), sólidos solubles (o Brix), la firmeza, grosor de la carne, el diámetro y la longitud de la cavidad a lo largo la fruta y transversal. El aumento de dosis de sulfato de magnesio no afectó el peso del fruto, en el comercial, el diámetro de la cavidad interna del fruto y el contenido de azúcar de sólidos solubles (o Brix) en melón híbrido Florentino. El aumento de dosis de sulfato de magnesio significativamente interferido con la firmeza en la carne de grosor y longitud en el melón híbrido longitudinal y transversal Florentino. A pesar de resultados satisfactorios para algunas características de calidad de la fruta no se recomienda la aplicación de sulfato de magnesio en el melón híbrido Florentino en suelos clasificados como Cambisol derivados de piedra caliza.

The study aimed to evaluate the effect of rates of magnesium sulfate on the production and fruit quality of melon. The experiment was carried out in area located in the municipality of Baraunas - RN, from 10/15 to 12/28/2009. Was used the hybrid melon 'Florentino' belonging to the group cantaloupensis. The treatments consisted of four rates of magnesium sulfate (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg ha-1). The experimental design was randomized block with four replications. The characteristics evaluated were: fruit weight (kg), marketable yield (t ha-1), soluble solids (oBrix), firmness pulp, flesh pulp thickness, diameter of the inner cavity and length longitudinal and transverse of the fruit. Increasing of rates of magnesium sulfate did not affect the fruit weight, commercial yield, diameter of the inner cavity of the fruit and content of soluble solids (o Brix) in melon. Increasing rates of magnesium sulfate significantly interfered with the firmness and thickness of the pulp and length longitudinal and transverse in melon. Although satisfactory results for some characteristics of fruit quality is not recommended the application of magnesium sulfate in the melon hybrid Florentino in soils classified as Cambisol carbonate derived from limestone., O trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito de doses de sulfato de magnésio na produção e qualidade de frutos de melão. O experimento foi desenvolvido em área localizada no município de Baraúnas – RN, no período de 15/10 a 28/12/2009. Utilizou-se o híbrido de melão ‘Florentino’ pertencente ao grupo cantaloupensis. Os tratamentos foram constituídos por quatro doses de sulfato de magnésio (0, 30, 60 e 90 kg ha-1). O delineamento experimental foi o blocos casualizados, com quatro repetições. As características avaliadas foram: massa média do fruto (kg), produtividade comercial (t ha-1), sólidos solúveis totais (obrix), firmeza de polpa, espessura da polpa, diâmetro da cavidade interna do fruto e comprimento longitudinal e transversal. O aumento nas doses de sulfato de magnésio não interferiu significativamente na massa média do fruto, na produtividade comercial, no diâmetro da cavidade interna do fruto e no teor de sólidos solúveis totais (oBrix) no melão híbrido Florentino. O aumento nas doses de sulfato de magnésio interferiu significativamente na firmeza da polpa, na espessura da polpa e no comprimento longitudinal e transversal no melão híbrido Florentino. Apesar de resultados satisfatórios para algumas características de qualidade do fruto não se recomenda a aplicação sulfato de magnésio no meloeiro híbrido Florentino em solos classificado como Cambissolo háplico derivado de calcário., El objetivo del estudio fue evaluar el efecto de las dosis de sulfato de magnesio en la producción y calidad de los frutos de melón. El experimento se realizó en una zona situada en el municipio de Baraunas - RN, del 15/10 al 28/12/2009. Se utilizó el híbrido de melón 'Florentino' perteneciente al grupo cantaloupensis. Los tratamientos consistieron en cuatro dosis de sulfato de magnesio (0, 30, 60 y 90 kg ha-1). El diseño experimental fue de bloques al azar con cuatro repeticiones. Las características evaluadas fueron: peso del fruto (kg), rendimiento comercial (t ha-1), sólidos solubles (o Brix), la firmeza, grosor de la carne, el diámetro y la longitud de la cavidad a lo largo la fruta y transversal. El aumento de dosis de sulfato de magnesio no afectó el peso del fruto, en el comercial, el diámetro de la cavidad interna del fruto y el contenido de azúcar de sólidos solubles (o Brix) en melón híbrido Florentino. El aumento de dosis de sulfato de magnesio significativamente interferido con la firmeza en la carne de grosor y longitud en el melón híbrido longitudinal y transversal Florentino. A pesar de resultados satisfactorios para algunas características de calidad de la fruta no se recomienda la aplicación de sulfato de magnesio en el melón híbrido Florentino en suelos clasificados como Cambisol derivados de piedra caliza.

Resurgence of vitamin D deficiencies in recent years has ascribed the need for expansion of fortification strategies in food. Alluding to the fat soluble and sensitive chemical nature of vitamin D, existing fortification strategies invariably require using a substantial amount of fat as carriers for vitamin D. Though milk proteins have demonstrated good binding properties with vitamin D; allergen issues, lactose intolerance, and the need to cater to vegan population deter its extensive use. In this study, soluble leaf proteins extracted from low-alkaloid tobacco leaves were investigated as a possible carrier. Crude tobacco leaf proteins were extracted by a high-throughput mechanistic process, followed by a freeze-drying process to encapsulate vitamin D. Up to 84.68% (w/w) of vitamin D was successfully retained by tobacco leaf proteins using the process developed, indicating that crude leaf protein recovered from tobacco could be employed as an effective carrier for vitamin D.

A number of polysaccharides with β-glycosidic linkage are widespread in nature in a variety of sources. All have a common structure and the (1→3)-β-D-glucan backbone is essential. They have attracted attention over the years because of their bioactive and medicinal properties. In many cases their functional role is a mystery, in others it is well established. Because of their insoluble chemical nature, particulate (1→3)-β-D-glucans are not suitable for many medical applications. Various methods of changing or modifying the β-D-glucan chemical structure and transforming it to a soluble form have been published. The β-D-glucan bioactive properties can be affected positively or negatively by such modifications. This review examines β-glucan sources in nature, health effects and structure-activity relationships. It presents the current state of β-D-glucan solubilization methods and discusses their effectiveness and application possibilities for the future.

We have shown previously that a 'soluble' form of PrP (prion protein), not associated with membranous vesicles, exists in the male reproductive fluid [Ecroyd, Sarradin, Dacheux and Gatti (2004) Biol. Reprod. 71, 993-1001]. Attempts to purify this 'soluble' PrP indicated that it behaves like a high-molecular-mass complex of more than 350 kDa and always co-purified with the same set of proteins. The main associated proteins were sequenced by MS and were found to match to clusterin (apolipoprotein J), BPI (bacterial permeability-increasing protein), carboxylesterase-like urinary excreted protein (cauxin), beta-mannosidase and beta-galactosidase. Immunoblotting and enzymatic assay confirmed the presence of clusterin and a cauxin-like protein and showed that a 17 kDa hydrophobic epididymal protein was also associated with this complex. These associated proteins were not separated by a high ionic strength treatment but were by 2-mercaptoethanol, probably due to its action on reducing disulphide bonds that maintain the interaction of components of the complex. Our results suggest that the associated PrP retains its GPI (glycosylphosphatidylinositol) anchor, in contrast with brain-derived PrP, and that it is resistant to cleavage by phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C. Based on these results, the identity of the associated proteins and the overall biochemical properties of this protein ensemble, we suggest that 'soluble' PrP can form protein complexes that are maintained by hydrophobic interactions, in a similar manner to lipoprotein vesicles or micellar complexes.

We have shown previously that a 'soluble' form of PrP (prion protein), not associated with membranous vesicles, exists in the male reproductive fluid [Ecroyd, Sarradin, Dacheux and Gatti (2004) Biol. Reprod. 71, 993-1001]. Attempts to purify this 'soluble' PrP indicated that it behaves like a high-molecular-mass complex of more than 350 kDa and always co-purified with the same set of proteins. The main associated proteins were sequenced by MS and were found to match to clusterin (apolipoprotein J), BPI (bacterial permeability-increasing protein), carboxylesterase-like urinary excreted protein (cauxin), beta-mannosidase and beta-galactosidase. Immunoblotting and enzymatic assay confirmed the presence of clusterin and a cauxin-like protein and showed that a 17 kDa hydrophobic epididymal protein was also associated with this complex. These associated proteins were not separated by a high ionic strength treatment but were by 2-mercaptoethanol, probably due to its action on reducing disulphide bonds that maintain the interaction of components of the complex. Our results suggest that the associated PrP retains its GPI (glycosylphosphatidylinositol) anchor, in contrast with brain-derived PrP, and that it is resistant to cleavage by phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C. Based on these results, the identity of the associated proteins and the overall biochemical properties of this protein ensemble, we suggest that 'soluble' PrP can form protein complexes that are maintained by hydrophobic interactions, in a similar manner to lipoprotein vesicles or micellar complexes.

We have shown previously that a 'soluble' form of PrP (prion protein), not associated with membranous vesicles, exists in the male reproductive fluid [Ecroyd, Sarradin, Dacheux and Gatti (2004) Biol. Reprod. 71, 993-1001]. Attempts to purify this 'soluble' PrP indicated that it behaves like a high-molecular-mass complex of more than 350 kDa and always co-purified with the same set of proteins. The main associated proteins were sequenced by MS and were found to match to clusterin (apolipoprotein J), BPI (bacterial permeability-increasing protein), carboxylesterase-like urinary excreted protein (cauxin), beta-mannosidase and beta-galactosidase. Immunoblotting and enzymatic assay confirmed the presence of clusterin and a cauxin-like protein and showed that a 17 kDa hydrophobic epididymal protein was also associated with this complex. These associated proteins were not separated by a high ionic strength treatment but were by 2-mercaptoethanol, probably due to its action on reducing disulphide bonds that maintain the interaction of components of the complex. Our results suggest that the associated PrP retains its GPI (glycosylphosphatidylinositol) anchor, in contrast with brain-derived PrP, and that it is resistant to cleavage by phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C. Based on these results, the identity of the associated proteins and the overall biochemical properties of this protein ensemble, we suggest that 'soluble' PrP can form protein complexes that are maintained by hydrophobic interactions, in a similar manner to lipoprotein vesicles or micellar complexes.

We have shown previously that a 'soluble' form of PrP (prion protein), not associated with membranous vesicles, exists in the male reproductive fluid [Ecroyd, Sarradin, Dacheux and Gatti (2004) Biol. Reprod. 71, 993-1001]. Attempts to purify this 'soluble' PrP indicated that it behaves like a high-molecular-mass complex of more than 350 kDa and always co-purified with the same set of proteins. The main associated proteins were sequenced by MS and were found to match to clusterin (apolipoprotein J), BPI (bacterial permeability-increasing protein), carboxylesterase-like urinary excreted protein (cauxin), beta-mannosidase and beta-galactosidase. Immunoblotting and enzymatic assay confirmed the presence of clusterin and a cauxin-like protein and showed that a 17 kDa hydrophobic epididymal protein was also associated with this complex. These associated proteins were not separated by a high ionic strength treatment but were by 2-mercaptoethanol, probably due to its action on reducing disulphide bonds that maintain the interaction of components of the complex. Our results suggest that the associated PrP retains its GPI (glycosylphosphatidylinositol) anchor, in contrast with brain-derived PrP, and that it is resistant to cleavage by phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C. Based on these results, the identity of the associated proteins and the overall biochemical properties of this protein ensemble, we suggest that 'soluble' PrP can form protein complexes that are maintained by hydrophobic interactions, in a similar manner to lipoprotein vesicles or micellar complexes.

Boracite was first discovered in Luneburg, Germany in 1789, and is a white to colorless mineral that is slightly soluble in water. It is usually orthorhombic but at high temperatures it undergoes a phase change becoming isometric. It is an ore of boron, and is used in the manufacture of cleaning agents, such as Borax, and other industrial chemicals.

Niter is a large white or grey encrusting mineral found on the surfaces and floors of caves, in arid desert regions. It is very soluble in water and gives a violet flame in a flame test. During the War of 1812, niter, also known as saltpeter, was mined for gunpowder manufacturing. Today it is used as a fertilizer, a mineral specimen, and is sometimes used as a reverse aphrodisiac to reduce sexual desire in men.

Niter is a large white or grey encrusting mineral found on the surfaces and floors of caves, in arid desert regions. It is very soluble in water and gives a violet flame in a flame test. During the War of 1812, niter, also known as saltpeter, was mined for gunpowder manufacturing. Today it is used as a fertilizer, a mineral specimen, and is sometimes used as a reverse aphrodisiac to reduce sexual desire in men.

Boracite was first discovered in Luneburg, Germany in 1789, and is a white to colorless mineral that is slightly soluble in water. It is usually orthorhombic but at high temperatures it undergoes a phase change becoming isometric. It is an ore of boron, and is used in the manufacture of cleaning agents, such as Borax, and other industrial chemicals.

To test the hypothesis that elevated serum levels of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (sVCAM-1), (s)E-selectin, (s)P-selectin and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (sIL-2R) occur in patients with biochemically inactive autoimmune hepatitis (AICH) compared with controls. Such a finding would suggest continued immune activation, which in the long-term would contribute to the development of cirrhosis in such patients.

To test the hypothesis that elevated serum levels of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (sVCAM-1), (s)E-selectin, (s)P-selectin and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (sIL-2R) occur in patients with biochemically inactive autoimmune hepatitis (AICH) compared with controls. Such a finding would suggest continued immune activation, which in the long-term would contribute to the development of cirrhosis in such patients.