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Le tourisme d’observation de la faune sauvage est une industrie complexe à gérer du fait de la nécessité de contrebalancer les éléments de conservation de l’animal, de la satisfaction des touristes assurant sa pérennité et du bénéfice économique apporté à la communauté. Les excursions de nage avec le requin-baleine sont à l’heure actuelle parmi les activités touristiques les plus développées et à la croissance la plus fulgurante pour le tourisme en rapport avec la faune sauvage. La répartition circumtropicale et le caractère migrateur du requin-baleine rendent le suivi de sa population et la gestion de sa conservation complexes. Ceci est renforcé par l’hétérogénéité des mesures en place autour du globe en termes de conservation et de gestion du tourisme. Cet essai avait pour objectif d’établir un portrait des pratiques et du contexte de conservation pour le tourisme lié au requin-baleine à plusieurs sites afin de produire des recommandations. Ceci a ainsi permis de créer un outil d’analyse applicable à différents sites autour du globe aux contextes socio-économiques et d’ancienneté de l’industrie divers. La comparaison par cet outil de 4 sites situés au Mexique, aux Philippines, en Australie et au Mozambique ont permis d’identifier les principales lacunes et points forts partagés par ces différents lieux selon les critères de gestion de la conservation, de l’établissement de lignes de conduite pour les interactions avec les nageurs et les opérateurs, la régulation des opérations et la formation, sensibilisation et recherche aux sites. Des difficultés sont notamment présentes du côté de la surveillance des opérations, des règles régulant les excursions en bateaux, de la transmission de l’information aux touristes et du manque de formation des guides. Les principales recommandations issues de cette analyse sont notamment l’adaptation de cet outil pour un suivi local et une autoévaluation des opérateurs afin de cibler les premières mesures à implémenter le plus facilem, Wildlife tourism is a complex industry to manage because of the need to balance the conservation of the animal, the satisfaction of the tourists ensuring its sustainability and the economic benefit to the community. Whale shark tours are currently one of the most developed and fastest growing wildlife tourism activities. The circumtropical distribution and migratory nature of the whale shark makes population monitoring and conservation management complex. This is reinforced by the heterogeneity of conservation and tourism management measures in place around the globe. The objective of this essay was to paint the picture of the conservation practices and their context for whale shark tourism at several sites in order to list recommendations. This allowed the creation of an analysis tool that could be applied to different sites around the world with different socio-economic contexts and seniorities of the industry. The comparison of four sites located in Mexico, the Philippines, Australia and Mozambique by this tool allowed the identification of the main gaps and strengths shared by these different sites according to the criteria of conservation management, the establishment of guidelines for interactions with swimmers and operators, the regulation of operations and training, awareness and research at the sites. Difficulties are particularly present in the monitoring of operations, rules regulating boat trips, transmission of information to tourists, and lack of training for guides. The main recommendations resulting from this analysis include the adaptation of this tool for local monitoring and self-assessment by operators in order to target the first measures to be implemented most easily at the sites, and the development of information and knowledge-building materials for operators and tourists. Finally, the criteria and indicators developed in this analysis can help to constitute an evaluation tool for the development of an international sustainable tour

Le tourisme d’observation de la faune sauvage est une industrie complexe à gérer du fait de la nécessité de contrebalancer les éléments de conservation de l’animal, de la satisfaction des touristes assurant sa pérennité et du bénéfice économique apporté à la communauté. Les excursions de nage avec le requin-baleine sont à l’heure actuelle parmi les activités touristiques les plus développées et à la croissance la plus fulgurante pour le tourisme en rapport avec la faune sauvage. La répartition circumtropicale et le caractère migrateur du requin-baleine rendent le suivi de sa population et la gestion de sa conservation complexes. Ceci est renforcé par l’hétérogénéité des mesures en place autour du globe en termes de conservation et de gestion du tourisme. Cet essai avait pour objectif d’établir un portrait des pratiques et du contexte de conservation pour le tourisme lié au requin-baleine à plusieurs sites afin de produire des recommandations. Ceci a ainsi permis de créer un outil d’analyse applicable à différents sites autour du globe aux contextes socio-économiques et d’ancienneté de l’industrie divers. La comparaison par cet outil de 4 sites situés au Mexique, aux Philippines, en Australie et au Mozambique ont permis d’identifier les principales lacunes et points forts partagés par ces différents lieux selon les critères de gestion de la conservation, de l’établissement de lignes de conduite pour les interactions avec les nageurs et les opérateurs, la régulation des opérations et la formation, sensibilisation et recherche aux sites. Des difficultés sont notamment présentes du côté de la surveillance des opérations, des règles régulant les excursions en bateaux, de la transmission de l’information aux touristes et du manque de formation des guides. Les principales recommandations issues de cette analyse sont notamment l’adaptation de cet outil pour un suivi local et une autoévaluation des opérateurs afin de cibler les premières mesures à implémenter le plus facilem, Wildlife tourism is a complex industry to manage because of the need to balance the conservation of the animal, the satisfaction of the tourists ensuring its sustainability and the economic benefit to the community. Whale shark tours are currently one of the most developed and fastest growing wildlife tourism activities. The circumtropical distribution and migratory nature of the whale shark makes population monitoring and conservation management complex. This is reinforced by the heterogeneity of conservation and tourism management measures in place around the globe. The objective of this essay was to paint the picture of the conservation practices and their context for whale shark tourism at several sites in order to list recommendations. This allowed the creation of an analysis tool that could be applied to different sites around the world with different socio-economic contexts and seniorities of the industry. The comparison of four sites located in Mexico, the Philippines, Australia and Mozambique by this tool allowed the identification of the main gaps and strengths shared by these different sites according to the criteria of conservation management, the establishment of guidelines for interactions with swimmers and operators, the regulation of operations and training, awareness and research at the sites. Difficulties are particularly present in the monitoring of operations, rules regulating boat trips, transmission of information to tourists, and lack of training for guides. The main recommendations resulting from this analysis include the adaptation of this tool for local monitoring and self-assessment by operators in order to target the first measures to be implemented most easily at the sites, and the development of information and knowledge-building materials for operators and tourists. Finally, the criteria and indicators developed in this analysis can help to constitute an evaluation tool for the development of an international sustainable tour

Whale sharks are known to aggregate in coastal areas. In the South Ari Marine Protected Area (Maldives) a aggregation, mostly represented by young males with a high level of residency, has been described in the literature. Despite the worldwide interest in the natural resources of the Maldives, this population is increasingly subjected to anthropogenic pressure and major concern regards the flourishing tourist industry. In this study, data collected by the Maldives Whale Shark Research Programme between 2014 and 2017 have been used to detect both temporal and spatial patterns of occurrence. Favourable environmental conditions to visually detect whale sharks have been defined for the studied area. Accordingly, a total of 1077 shark encounters have been analysed in this study. Environmental conditions (i.e. sea surface temperature, monsoon occurrence) have been used to detect possible factors affecting the spatial and temporal variability of Rhincodon typus aggregations. A two-way ANOVA has been performed to detect temporal trends in animal occurrence, sea surface temperature pattern and to investigate the sea bottom depth variability during encounters. Significant differences in the monthly occurrence of whale sharks within the same year and among different years have been detected. Similar patterns have been observed for environmental parameters such as sea surface temperature and depth. A different spatial distribution has also been detected as a function of the Indian Monsoon reversal (north-eastern and south-western) affecting the area. During the northeast monsoon period, whale sharks appeared to concentrate in a smaller longitudinal range closer to the western-central part of the MPA, where deeper water conditions occur due to the proximity of a deep depression (submarine canyon). Results from this study provide new pieces of information for the implementation of dedicated management actions to protect the whale sharks population inhabiting the South Ari Marine

Objective: To realize out the economic valuation of the recreational ecosystem service (SER) provided by the whale shark within La Paz Bay as well as to calculate the willingness to pay (DAP) of the SER users. Methodology: The Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) was applied through a Logit model. Result: The economic utility and WTP of the interviewees were calculated during the 2019-2020 observation season considering socioeconomic variables such as gender, age, education and country of origin of the respondents, among others. Limitations: The MVC asks the contingent valuation question directly, some difficulties may arise when the measurement is executed. This is because it is a technique, which can imply disadvantages in the veracity on the responses of the interviewees. The biases that can occur with the design and application of the survey were minimized. However, given the scope of the study, it was not possible to validate its results with other techniques of economic valuation of the environment. Conclusions: The total WTP was calculated, for national tourism and foreign tourism. No significant differences were found between them. The presence of the whale shark at La Paz Bay, among other natural attractions found in the area; annually attract foreign tourism from countries around the world, which are part of the local economy., Objetivo: realizar la valoración económica del servicio ecosistémico recreativo (SER) provisto por el tiburón ballena dentro de la Bahía de La Paz, así como calcular la disponibilidad a pagar (DAP) de los usuarios del SER. Metodología: se aplicó el Método de Valoración Contingente (MVC) a través de un modelo Logit. Resultado: se calculó la utilidad económica y la DAP de los entrevistados durante la temporada de observación 2019-2020 considerando variables socioeconómicas como género, edad, escolaridad y país de origen de los encuestados, entre otras. Limitaciones: dado que el MVC realiza la pregunta de valoración contingente de manera directa, se pueden presentar algunas dificultades cuando la medición es efectuada. Esto se debe a que es una técnica que puede implicar desventajas en la veracidad de las respuestas de los entrevistados. Los sesgos que se pueden presentar con el diseño y aplicación de la encuesta fueron minimizados, sin embargo, dado el alcance del estudio, no fue posible validar sus resultados con otras técnicas de valoración económica del medio ambiente. Conclusiones: se calculó la DAP total, la del turismo nacional y la del turismo extranjero. No se encontraron diferencias significativas entre estas. La presencia del tiburón ballena en la bahía, en conjunto con los demás atractivos naturales que se encuentran en la zona, atraen anualmente a turismo extranjero proveniente de diversos países alrededor del mundo, los cuales contribuyen a la economía local.

Whale sharks are known to aggregate in coastal areas. In the South Ari Marine Protected Area (Maldives) a aggregation, mostly represented by young males with a high level of residency, has been described in the literature. Despite the worldwide interest in the natural resources of the Maldives, this population is increasingly subjected to anthropogenic pressure and major concern regards the flourishing tourist industry. In this study, data collected by the Maldives Whale Shark Research Programme between 2014 and 2017 have been used to detect both temporal and spatial patterns of occurrence. Favourable environmental conditions to visually detect whale sharks have been defined for the studied area. Accordingly, a total of 1077 shark encounters have been analysed in this study. Environmental conditions (i.e. sea surface temperature, monsoon occurrence) have been used to detect possible factors affecting the spatial and temporal variability of Rhincodon typus aggregations. A two-way ANOVA has been performed to detect temporal trends in animal occurrence, sea surface temperature pattern and to investigate the sea bottom depth variability during encounters. Significant differences in the monthly occurrence of whale sharks within the same year and among different years have been detected. Similar patterns have been observed for environmental parameters such as sea surface temperature and depth. A different spatial distribution has also been detected as a function of the Indian Monsoon reversal (north-eastern and south-western) affecting the area. During the northeast monsoon period, whale sharks appeared to concentrate in a smaller longitudinal range closer to the western-central part of the MPA, where deeper water conditions occur due to the proximity of a deep depression (submarine canyon). Results from this study provide new pieces of information for the implementation of dedicated management actions to protect the whale sharks population inhabiting the South Ari Marine

Intra-species variability in foraging strategies may be common, which has significant implications for efforts to understand and manage enigmatic species like the whale shark Rhincodon typus. The ecological relevance of differences in tissue isotopes within and between individuals in the context of foraging however depends on understanding tissue turnover times and carbon (Δ 13 C) and nitrogen (Δ 15 N) discrimination, which can vary with physiology, metabolism, and diet quality. Here, we examine isotope dynamics in captive R. typus as a basis for enhanced ecological insights into wild populations of the world's largest fish and other enigmatic species. A variable diet, principally consisting of two krill (Euphausia pacifica and Euphausia superba) provided an average of 48 ± 20 MJ/d (mean ± SD), or 2.7 ± 1.3 times basal metabolic requirements. On this diet, in agreement with allometric relationships, large body sizes (3,000–4,000 kg) were matched by slow plasma and cartilage turnover rates (empirically derived as 9 months and 3 yr, respectively), which provide tissue-specific limits on the timescales over which we can isotopically detect diet changes in this species. Average diet-to-tissue discrimination showed significant variation between tissues (plasma and cartilage), and among growing and fasting individuals (Δ 13 C range, 1.5 to 5.5‰; Δ 15 N range, −0.1 to 2.9‰). Assimilation rates increased with temperature and were higher for the smaller E. pacifica (15 ± 2 mm) than E. superba (48 ± 2 mm). Growth significantly lowered both Δ 15 N plasma and Δ 15 N cartilage , with inappetence markedly reducing Δ 15 N plasma and Δ 13 C plasma , as well as significantly altering blood biochemistry. Captive findings facilitated the first robust multi-tissue growth- and nutrition-corrected isotope analysis of a wild R. typus population, suggesting individual foraging specialization on low trophic level mid-ocean or coastal prey. Long-term fasting during ocean-basin-scale migratio

The whale shark (Rhincodon typus) is an endangered species that may be exposed to micro- and macro-plastic ingestion as a result of their filter-feeding activity, particularly on the sea surface. In this pilot project we perform the first ecotoxicological investigation on whale sharks sampled in the Gulf of California exploring the potential interaction of this species with plastic debris (macro-, micro-plastics and related sorbed contaminants). Due to the difficulty in obtaining stranded specimens of this endangered species, an indirect approach, by skin biopsies was used for the evaluation of the whale shark ecotoxicological status. The levels of organochlorine compounds (PCBs, DDTs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) plastic additives, and related biomarkers responses (CYP1A) were investigated for the first time in the whale shark. Twelve whale shark skin biopsy samples were collected in January 2014 in La Paz Bay (BCS, Mexico) and a preliminary investigation on microplastic concentration and polymer composition was also carried out in seawater samples from the same area. The average abundance pattern for the target contaminants was PCBs > DDTs > PBDEs > HCB. Mean concentration values of 8.42 ng/g w.w. were found for PCBs, 1.31 ng/g w.w. for DDTs, 0.29 ng/g w.w. for PBDEs and 0.19 ng/g w.w. for HCB. CYP1A-like protein was detected, for the first time, in whale shark skin samples. First data on the average density of microplastics in the superficial zooplankton/microplastic samples showed values ranging from 0.00 items/m to 0.14 items/m. A focused PCA analysis was performed to evaluate a possible correlation among the size of the whale sharks, contaminants and CYP1A reponses. Further ecotoxicological investigation on whale shark skin biopsies will be carried out for a worldwide ecotoxicological risk assessment of this endangerd species.

The stranding of marine megafauna such as whales, whale sharks or megamouth shark is a phenomenon that happens almost every year in Indonesian waters. There were 17 events of stranding whales and three events of stranding whale sharks recorded from all over the country during 2012-2013. Several factors were suggested as the causes of this phenomenon. Illness and disease problems seem to be a main factor for stranded whales, while human activities and plentiful food availability in the coastal areas became main factors for stranded whale sharks. A standard of procedure for handling stranded marine animals has been developed in Indonesia. Several limitations may generate on-going obstacles for these handling efforts, and pose challenges to the government and all stakeholders involved., March 18-19, 2013

The stranding of marine megafauna such as whales, whale sharks or megamouth shark is a phenomenon that happens almost every year in Indonesian waters. There were 17 events of stranding whales and three events of stranding whale sharks recorded from all over the country during 2012-2013. Several factors were suggested as the causes of this phenomenon. Illness and disease problems seem to be a main factor for stranded whales, while human activities and plentiful food availability in the coastal areas became main factors for stranded whale sharks. A standard of procedure for handling stranded marine animals has been developed in Indonesia. Several limitations may generate on-going obstacles for these handling efforts, and pose challenges to the government and all stakeholders involved.

This paper investigates the different sources of information used by tourists to learn about a particular wildlife tourism activity, specifically, whale shark tourism at Ningaloo Marine Park in Western Australia. The findings from this research concur with previous studies of wildlife tourism showing that wildlife tourism operations are reliant on more informal and general forms of promotion, in particular word of mouth and guide books. Conversely, more deliberate marketing mechanisms, such as the internet and documentaries, are not extensively utilised. To disaggregate consumer preferences for various information sources, this article segments the population into more homogenous groups, thereby demonstrating distinct differences in the choice of information source based on the participants' normal place of residence.

In this paper, we examine the expenditure of whale shark tour participants at Ningaloo Marine Park, Western Australia; the location of the world's first whale shark tourism industry, established in 1989. We demonstrate that in 2006, participants' expenditure in the region was $894 per trip, total expenditure was $6.0 million (all figures are in Australian dollars), and between $2.4 and $4.6 million would have been lost to the region if whale shark tourism did not exist. Our measure of participants' expenditure is substantially lower than the calculation of $2370 per participant from a previous study of whale shark tourists using data collected in 1995. We argue that this is consistent with a change in the types of wildlife tourists that participate in an activity as the industry reaches the point of consolidation. Our results also suggest that using old data to forecast wildlife tourists' expenditure needs to take into account the industry's stage of development.

We document two recent beach strandings of whale sharks on both the east and west coasts of Australia and compare them to strandings of other species of shark and cetaceans. Historically, whale shark stranding is an unusual phenomenon in Australia. Although the reasons for whale shark strandings are speculative, their low frequency suggests they are unlikely to pose any considerable threat to the population viability of this species in Australia.

A dead 5.5 m long female whale shark (Rhincodon typus) was brought to shore by fishermen in Samutprakarn, Thailand. A necropsy was subsequently performed. Several isolated hemorrhages with multiple ulcers were observed in the gastric mucosa, extending into the subserosal tissue of the stomach. An extremely hard and stiff plastic drinking straw was found in the gastric lumen. The hardening of the straw was due to the reaction of stomach enzyme to plastic, which became a sharp foreign object inside the stomach. Although putrefaction and autolysis was observed, all other organ systems displayed normal findings and no competing cause of death was in evidence. Cause of death was thus suspected to be attributed to the ingestion of the drinking straw, with subsequent irritation of the stomach mucosa causing wounds and infections and may be not possible to eliminate due to the floating nature of the plastic. Since this is a very rare case, due to the fact that shark could usually eliminate the stomach content, we should not overlook the danger of plastic pollution in the marine environment., December 15-17, 2007, Royal Phuket City Hotel, Phuket, Thailand

A dead 5.5 m long female whale shark (Rhincodon typus) was brought to shore by fishermen in Samutprakarn, Thailand. A necropsy was subsequently performed. Several isolated hemorrhages with multiple ulcers were observed in the gastric mucosa, extending into the subserosal tissue of the stomach. An extremely hard and stiff plastic drinking straw was found in the gastric lumen. The hardening of the straw was due to the reaction of stomach enzyme to plastic, which became a sharp foreign object inside the stomach. Although putrefaction and autolysis was observed, all other organ systems displayed normal findings and no competing cause of death was in evidence. Cause of death was thus suspected to be attributed to the ingestion of the drinking straw, with subsequent irritation of the stomach mucosa causing wounds and infections and may be not possible to eliminate due to the floating nature of the plastic. Since this is a very rare case, due to the fact that shark could usually eliminate the stomach content, we should not overlook the danger of plastic pollution in the marine environment.

1. Precise estimates of demographic rates are key components of population models used to predict the effects of stochastic environmental processes, harvest scenarios and extinction probability. 2. We used a 12-year photographic identification library of whale sharks from Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia to construct Cormack-Jolly-Seber (CJS) model estimates of survival within a capture-mark-recapture (CMR) framework. Estimated survival rates, population structure and assumptions regarding age at maturity, longevity and reproduction frequency were combined in a series of age-classified Leslie matrices to infer the potential trajectory of the population. 3. Using data from 111 individuals, there was evidence for time variation in apparent survival (phi) and recapture probability (p). The null model gave a (phi) over cap of 0.825 (95% CI: 0.727-0.893) and (p) over cap = 0.184 (95% CI: 0.121-0.271). The model-averaged annual (phi) over cap ranged from 0.737 to 0.890. There was little evidence for a sex effect on survival. 4. Using standardized total length as a covariate in the CMR models indicated a size bias in phi. Ignoring the effects of time, a 5-m shark has a (phi) over cap = 0.59 and a 9 m shark has (phi) over cap = 0.81. 5. Of the 16 model combinations considered, 10 (63%) indicated a decreasing population (lambda < 1). For models based on age at first reproduction (alpha) of 13 years, the mean age of reproducing females at the stable age distribution ((A) over bar) ranged from 15 to 23 years, which increased to 29-37 years when alpha was assumed to be 25. 6. All model scenarios had higher total elasticities for non-reproductive female survival [E(s(nr))] compared to those for reproductive female survival [E(s(r))]. 7. Assuming relatively slow, but biologically realistic, vital rates (alpha = 25 and biennial reproduction) and size-biased survival probabilities, our results suggest that the Ningaloo Reef population of whale sharks is declining, although more

We used photo-identification to produce estimates of population size and structure of whale sharks Rhincodon typus at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia. We analysed photographs of whale sharks taken from 1992 to 2004. A combination of spot and stripe patterns behind the last gill slit and forward of the dorsal fin (lateral view), and distinctive scars and marks on the body and fins were useful for identifying individual sharks. These patterns appeared to be unique to individuals and distinctive markings could be recognized on some sharks for more than a decade. From 581 photographs, 159 individuals were identified. Of these, 74% were male, 16% were female and 10% were of indeterminate gender. Photographed sharks ranged in estimated size from 3 to 10 m total length (TL). The size distribution of sharks was bimodal with a large peak at 8 m and a smaller peak at 6 m TL. Sixty individuals were resighted during the study. Of these, 46 were resighted at different times during the same year (sometimes on multiple occasions) up to 4 mo after they were initially photographed, and 33 were resighted (4 on > 2 occasions) in different years. The interval between inter-annual resightings was typically 1 to 3 yr; however, 2 sharks were resighted after a period of 12 yr. We estimated the super population of whale sharks that visit Ningaloo Reef to consist of approximately 300 to 500 individuals (95% confidence interval) based on closed population models, or 320 to 440 based on Jolly-Seber open-population models. Our study shows that photo-identification offers a practical, non-invasive and non-destructive means to obtain data on the population size and demography of whale sharks.