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Knowledge of regional changes in mean sea level and local changes in tides are crucial to inform effective climate adaptation. An essential element is the availability of accurate observations of sea level. Sea level data in the Republic of Ireland, prior to the establishment of the National Tide Gauge Network in the mid-2000s, are limited but belie a wealth of historical data available in archival form. In this study, we digitize records located in Cork Harbour, Ireland, from 1842 and show how short-duration (6–8 weeks), high-quality data with a large interval to the present can accurately inform tidal and mean sea level changes. We consider error sources in detail. We estimate for the main M2 tidal constituent that the accuracy of these historical measurements is 1 % and 2 min for amplitude and phase, respectively, once adjustments for seasonal and nodal effects are made. Our mean sea level estimates are accurate to the 2 cm level, once adjustments for atmospheric and seasonal effects are made. Our results show tidal stability with a 2 % change in the amplitude of the M2 component, 4 min change in the phase over a period of 177 years, and mean sea level rise of 40 cm in the Cork Harbour area from 1842 to 2019, approximately in line with global mean sea level trends plus local glacial isostatic adjustment. More broadly, we show that with careful seasonal, nodal, and atmospheric corrections, together with knowledge of benchmark provenance, these historic, survey-oriented data can accurately inform of sea level changes.

Knowledge of regional changes in mean sea level and local changes in tides are crucial to inform effective climate adaptation. An essential element is the availability of accurate observations of sea level. Sea level data in the Republic of Ireland, prior to the establishment of the National Tide Gauge Network in the mid-2000s, are limited but belie a wealth of historical data available in archival form. In this study, we digitize records located in Cork Harbour, Ireland, from 1842 and show how short-duration (6–8 weeks), high-quality data with a large interval to the present can accurately inform tidal and mean sea level changes. We consider error sources in detail. We estimate for the main M2 tidal constituent that the accuracy of these historical measurements is 1 % and 2 min for amplitude and phase, respectively, once adjustments for seasonal and nodal effects are made. Our mean sea level estimates are accurate to the 2 cm level, once adjustments for atmospheric and seasonal effects are made. Our results show tidal stability with a 2 % change in the amplitude of the M2 component, 4 min change in the phase over a period of 177 years, and mean sea level rise of 40 cm in the Cork Harbour area from 1842 to 2019, approximately in line with global mean sea level trends plus local glacial isostatic adjustment. More broadly, we show that with careful seasonal, nodal, and atmospheric corrections, together with knowledge of benchmark provenance, these historic, survey-oriented data can accurately inform of sea level changes.

Sea level records have been obtained from a dozen tide gauges deployed around the Shetland Islands, and the high-frequency components of each record have been analysed to determine how the amplitudes and periods of seiches vary from place to place. We have found that seiches occur almost everywhere, although with different periods at different locations, and sometimes with amplitudes exceeding several decimetres. Spectral analysis shows that two or more modes of seiching are present at some sites. The study attempts to explain, with the help of a numerical model, why seiches with particular periods are observed at each location, and what forcings are responsible for them. In particular, we have revisited an earlier study of seiches on the east coast of Shetland by Cartwright and Young (Proc R Soc Lond A 338:111–128, 1974) and find no evidence to support the theory that they proposed for their generation. In addition, we have investigated how often and why the largest seiche events occur at Lerwick (with trough-to-crest wave heights of about 1 m), taking advantage of its long sea level record. Seiches (and other types of high-frequency sea level variability) are often ignored in studies of sea level changes and their coastal impacts. And yet they can be large enough to contribute significantly to the extreme sea levels that have major impacts on the coast. Therefore, our Shetland research serves as a case study of the need to have a fuller understanding of the climatology of seiches for the whole world coastline.

Sea level records have been obtained from a dozen tide gauges deployed around the Shetland Islands, and the high-frequency components of each record have been analysed to determine how the amplitudes and periods of seiches vary from place to place. We have found that seiches occur almost everywhere, although with different periods at different locations, and sometimes with amplitudes exceeding several decimetres. Spectral analysis shows that two or more modes of seiching are present at some sites. The study attempts to explain, with the help of a numerical model, why seiches with particular periods are observed at each location, and what forcings are responsible for them. In particular, we have revisited an earlier study of seiches on the east coast of Shetland by Cartwright and Young (Proc R Soc Lond A 338:111–128, 1974) and find no evidence to support the theory that they proposed for their generation. In addition, we have investigated how often and why the largest seiche events occur at Lerwick (with trough-to-crest wave heights of about 1 m), taking advantage of its long sea level record. Seiches (and other types of high-frequency sea level variability) are often ignored in studies of sea level changes and their coastal impacts. And yet they can be large enough to contribute significantly to the extreme sea levels that have major impacts on the coast. Therefore, our Shetland research serves as a case study of the need to have a fuller understanding of the climatology of seiches for the whole world coastline.

The major results from the ESA – GOCE ++ project on the potential of ocean levelling as a novel approach to the study of height system unification taking the recent development in geoid accuracy trough GOCE data into account. The suggested investigation involves the use of measurements and modelling to estimate Mean Dynamic Topography (MDT) of the ocean along a coastline which contributes/requires reconciling altimetry, tide gauge and vertical land motion. The fundamental use of the MDT computed using altimetry, ocean models or through the use of tide gauges has values of between -2 and +1 meters at different points in the ocean. However, close to the coast the determination of the MDT is problematic due to i.e., the altimeter footprint, land motion or parameterization/modelling of coastal currents. The presentation also outlines a new addendum to the project on the use of GPS reflectometry as Coastal tide gauge and the correspondence with SAR altimetry from Cryosat-2 and Sentinel-3.

The direct method of vertical datum unification requires estimates of the ocean’s mean dynamic topography (MDT) at tide gauges, which can be sourced from either geodetic or oceanographic approaches. To assess the suitability of different types of MDT for this purpose, we evaluate 13 physics-based numerical ocean models and six MDTs computed from observed geodetic and/or ocean data at 32 tide gauges around the Australian coast. We focus on the viability of numerical ocean models for vertical datum unification, classifying the 13 ocean models used as either independent (do not contain assimilated geodetic data) or non-independent (do contain assimilated geodetic data). We find that the independent and non-independent ocean models deliver similar results. Maximum differences among ocean models and geodetic MDTs reach > 150 mm at several Australian tide gauges and are considered anomalous at the 99% confidence level. These differences appear to be of geodetic origin, but without additional independent information, or formal error estimates for each model, some of these errors remain inseparable. Our results imply that some ocean models have standard deviations of differences with other MDTs (using geodetic and/or ocean observations) at Australian tide gauges, and with levelling between some Australian tide gauges, of (Formula presented.). This indicates that they should be considered as an alternative to geodetic MDTs for the direct unification of vertical datums. They can also be used as diagnostics for errors in geodetic MDT in coastal zones, but the inseparability problem remains, where the error cannot be discriminated between the geoid model or altimeter-derived mean sea surface.

Extreme sea levels along the densely monitored coasts of the North Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico have been investigated using high frequency tide gauge measurements in the GESLA-2 data set (www.gesla.org). Our results, based on non-tidal residuals and skew surges in records since 1960, confirm that mean sea level (MSL) is a major, but not a unique, driver of extremes. Regionally-coherent linear trends and correlations with large scale climate patterns are found in extreme events, even after the removal of MSL. A similar conclusion, that MSL is a major but not the only driver of extremes, comes from a small number of long records starting in the mid-19th century. The records show slight increases in the intensity of extreme episodes at centennial time scales, together with multi-decadal variability unrelated to MSL. Objective statistical criteria have been used to investigate whether extreme sea level distributions are stationary or not, resulting in non-stationarity being favoured in many records, with or without accounting for changes in MSL. Extremes have been found to favour a non-Gumbel behaviour at many locations, with implications for the accuracy of return levels for coastal engineering.

Extreme sea levels along the densely monitored coasts of the North Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico have been investigated using high frequency tide gauge measurements in the GESLA-2 data set (www.gesla.org). Our results, based on non-tidal residuals and skew surges in records since 1960, confirm that mean sea level (MSL) is a major, but not a unique, driver of extremes. Regionally-coherent linear trends and correlations with large scale climate patterns are found in extreme events, even after the removal of MSL. A similar conclusion, that MSL is a major but not the only driver of extremes, comes from a small number of long records starting in the mid-19th century. The records show slight increases in the intensity of extreme episodes at centennial time scales, together with multi-decadal variability unrelated to MSL. Objective statistical criteria have been used to investigate whether extreme sea level distributions are stationary or not, resulting in non-stationarity being favoured in many records, with or without accounting for changes in MSL. Extremes have been found to favour a non-Gumbel behaviour at many locations, with implications for the accuracy of return levels for coastal engineering.

This paper describes the assembly of an updated quasi-global dataset of higher-frequency sea level information obtained from tide gauges operated by many agencies around the world. We believe that the construction of such a dataset is fundamental to scientific research in sea level variability and also to practical aspects of coastal engineering. A first version of the dataset was used in approximately a dozen published studies, and this second version is about twice the size, containing longer and more geographically representative sea level records. The dataset has acquired a digital object identifier and may be obtained from several sources. The paper mentions some of the merits of and deficiencies with the present version and takes a forward look at how the dataset may be updated in the future.

This paper describes the assembly of an updated quasi-global dataset of higher-frequency sea level information obtained from tide gauges operated by many agencies around the world. We believe that the construction of such a dataset is fundamental to scientific research in sea level variability and also to practical aspects of coastal engineering. A first version of the dataset was used in approximately a dozen published studies, and this second version is about twice the size, containing longer and more geographically representative sea level records. The dataset has acquired a digital object identifier and may be obtained from several sources. The paper mentions some of the merits of and deficiencies with the present version and takes a forward look at how the dataset may be updated in the future.

This paper describes the assembly of an updated quasi-global dataset of higher-frequency sea level information obtained from tide gauges operated by many agencies around the world. We believe that the construction of such a dataset is fundamental to scientific research in sea level variability and also to practical aspects of coastal engineering. A first version of the dataset was used in approximately a dozen published studies, and this second version is about twice the size, containing longer and more geographically representative sea level records. The dataset has acquired a digital object identifier and may be obtained from several sources. The paper mentions some of the merits of and deficiencies with the present version and takes a forward look at how the dataset may be updated in the future.

In 2008 a new pressure tide gauge with Global Sea Level Observing System Number 187 was installed at King Edward Point (KEP), South Georgia Island, South Atlantic Ocean. This installation was carried out as part of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current Levels by Altimetry and Island Measurements (ACCLAIM) programme. In 2013 the KEP Geodetic Observatory was established in support of various scientific applications including the monitoring of vertical land movements at KEP. Currently, the observatory consists of two state-of-the-art Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) stations with local benchmark networks. In 2014 a tide board was added to the tide gauge, which, together with the measurements from the KEP Geodetic Observatory, now enables a calibration of the tide gauge. This will make it possible to include the KEP tide gauge in the Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level (PSMSL) database and make it available for future sea level studies. In this study, we will present the GNSS and levelling observations from the KEP Geodetic Observatory for the period from February 2013 to May 2015 used for the calibration of the tide gauge. While it is still too early to obtain accurate vertical land movement estimates from the GNSS data, the levelling campaigns in 2013 and 2014 indicated 7-9 mm of subsidence near the tide gauge. For the computation of the new height datum, geoid undulations derived from a seamless combination of the latest Gravity Observation Combination (GOCO) and Earth Gravitational Model (EGM) 2008 models were used. The use of this combined gravity model introduced a datum shift of approximately -24 cm compared to the previous datum.

In 2008 a new pressure tide gauge with Global Sea Level Observing System Number 187 was installed at King Edward Point (KEP), South Georgia Island, South Atlantic Ocean. This installation was carried out as part of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current Levels by Altimetry and Island Measurements (ACCLAIM) programme. In 2013 the KEP Geodetic Observatory was established in support of various scientific applications including the monitoring of vertical land movements at KEP. Currently, the observatory consists of two state-of-the-art Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) stations with local benchmark networks. In 2014 a tide board was added to the tide gauge, which, together with the measurements from the KEP Geodetic Observatory, now enables a calibration of the tide gauge. This will make it possible to include the KEP tide gauge in the Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level (PSMSL) database and make it available for future sea level studies. In this study, we will present the GNSS and levelling observations from the KEP Geodetic Observatory for the period from February 2013 to May 2015 used for the calibration of the tide gauge. While it is still too early to obtain accurate vertical land movement estimates from the GNSS data, the levelling campaigns in 2013 and 2014 indicated 7-9 mm of subsidence near the tide gauge. For the computation of the new height datum, geoid undulations derived from a seamless combination of the latest Gravity Observation Combination (GOCO) and Earth Gravitational Model (EGM) 2008 models were used. The use of this combined gravity model introduced a datum shift of approximately -24 cm compared to the previous datum.

After initial sea level observations in the 1950s, a new pressure tide gauge (Global Sea Level Observing System 187) was installed at King Edward Point (KEP), South Georgia Island, British Overseas Territories in the South Atlantic Ocean, in 2008. This was car-ried out as part of the ACCLAIM (Antarctic Circumpolar Current Levels by Altimetry and Island Measurements) programme. In 2013 the KEP Geodetic Observato-ry was established in support of various geoscience applications including the monitor-ing of vertical land movements at KEP. Currently, the observatory consists of two state-of-the-art GNSS stations with local benchmark networks, allowing the height determina-tions from the GNSS antennas to be transferred to the tide gauge and forming a height reference within the International Terrestrial Reference Frame. Finally in 2014, a tide board was added to the tide gauge, which, together with the GNSS and levelling obser-vations, now allows the calibration of the tide gauge. In this study, we will present the results from the calibration of the tide gauge using the GNSS observations from the KEP Geodetic Observatory for the period from February 2013 to present, the levelling campaigns in 2013 and 2014, and geoid undulations de-rived from a seamless combination of the latest GOCO and EGM2008 gravity models.

In 2008 a new pressure tide gauge with Global Sea Level Observing System Number 187 was installed at King Edward Point (KEP), South Georgia Island, South Atlantic Ocean. This installation was carried out as part of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current Levels by Altimetry and Island Measurements (ACCLAIM) programme. In 2013 the KEP Geodetic Observatory was established in support of various scientific applications including the monitoring of vertical land movements at KEP. Currently, the observatory consists of two state-of-the-art Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) stations with local benchmark networks. This ties all benchmarks and the tide gauge into the International Terrestrial Reference Frame 2008, and allows the establishment of a local height datum in a global height system through the use of a global gravitational model. In 2014 a tide board was added to the tide gauge, which, together with the GNSS and levelling observations, now enables a calibration of the tide gauge. This will make it possible to include the KEP tide gauge in the Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level (PSMSL) database. In this study, we will present the results from the calibration of the tide gauge using the GNSS observations from the KEP Geodetic Observatory for the period from February 2013 to present, the levelling campaigns in 2013 and 2014, and geoid undulations derived from a seamless combination of the latest Gravity Observation Combination (GOCO) 05S and Earth Gravitational Model (EGM) 2008 models.

In 2008 a new pressure tide gauge with Global Sea Level Observing System Number 187 was installed at King Edward Point (KEP), South Georgia Island, South Atlantic Ocean. This installation was carried out as part of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current Levels by Altimetry and Island Measurements (ACCLAIM) programme. In 2013 the KEP Geodetic Observatory was established in support of various scientific applications including the monitoring of vertical land movements at KEP. Currently, the observatory consists of two state-of-the-art Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) stations with local benchmark networks. This ties all benchmarks and the tide gauge into the International Terrestrial Reference Frame 2008, and allows the establishment of a local height datum in a global height system through the use of a global gravitational model. In 2014 a tide board was added to the tide gauge, which, together with the GNSS and levelling observations, now enables a calibration of the tide gauge. This will make it possible to include the KEP tide gauge in the Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level (PSMSL) database. In this study, we will present the results from the calibration of the tide gauge using the GNSS observations from the KEP Geodetic Observatory for the period from February 2013 to present, the levelling campaigns in 2013 and 2014, and geoid undulations derived from a seamless combination of the latest Gravity Observation Combination (GOCO) 05S and Earth Gravitational Model (EGM) 2008 models.

After initial sea level observations in the 1950s, a new pressure tide gauge (Global Sea Level Observing System 187) was installed at King Edward Point (KEP), South Georgia Island, British Overseas Territories in the South Atlantic Ocean, in 2008. This was car-ried out as part of the ACCLAIM (Antarctic Circumpolar Current Levels by Altimetry and Island Measurements) programme. In 2013 the KEP Geodetic Observato-ry was established in support of various geoscience applications including the monitor-ing of vertical land movements at KEP. Currently, the observatory consists of two state-of-the-art GNSS stations with local benchmark networks, allowing the height determina-tions from the GNSS antennas to be transferred to the tide gauge and forming a height reference within the International Terrestrial Reference Frame. Finally in 2014, a tide board was added to the tide gauge, which, together with the GNSS and levelling obser-vations, now allows the calibration of the tide gauge. In this study, we will present the results from the calibration of the tide gauge using the GNSS observations from the KEP Geodetic Observatory for the period from February 2013 to present, the levelling campaigns in 2013 and 2014, and geoid undulations de-rived from a seamless combination of the latest GOCO and EGM2008 gravity models.

In 2008 a new pressure tide gauge with Global Sea Level Observing System Number 187 was installed at King Edward Point (KEP), South Georgia Island, South Atlantic Ocean. This installation was carried out as part of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current Levels by Altimetry and Island Measurements (ACCLAIM) programme. In 2013 the KEP Geodetic Observatory was established in support of various scientific applications including the monitoring of vertical land movements at KEP. Currently, the observatory consists of two state-of-the-art Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) stations with local benchmark networks. In 2014 a tide board was added to the tide gauge, which, together with the measurements from the KEP Geodetic Observatory, now enables a calibration of the tide gauge. This will make it possible to include the KEP tide gauge in the Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level (PSMSL) database and make it available for future sea level studies. In this study, we will present the GNSS and levelling observations from the KEP Geodetic Observatory for the period from February 2013 to May 2015 used for the calibration of the tide gauge. While it is still too early to obtain accurate vertical land movement estimates from the GNSS data, the levelling campaigns in 2013 and 2014 indicated 7-9 mm of subsidence near the tide gauge. For the computation of the new height datum, geoid undulations derived from a seamless combination of the latest Gravity Observation Combination (GOCO) and Earth Gravitational Model (EGM) 2008 models were used. The use of this combined gravity model introduced a datum shift of approximately -24 cm compared to the previous datum.

The hydrosphere is dynamic across the major compartments of the Earth system: the atmosphere, the oceans and seas, the land surface water, and the groundwater within the strata below the two last compartments. The global geography of the hydrosphere essentially depends on thermodynamic and mechanical processes that develop within this structure. Water-related processes at the interfaces between the compartments are complex, depending both on the interface itself, and on the characteristics of the interfaced compartments. Various aspects of global change directly or indirectly impact these interfaces and interfaced compartments and processes. Climate, sea-level, oceanographic currents and hydrological processes are all affected, while anthropogenic changes are often intense in the geographic settings corresponding to such interfaces.

We present a new 300-year sea-level reconstruction from a salt marsh on the Isle of Wight (central English Channel, UK) that we compare to other salt-marsh and long tide-gauge records to examine spatial and temporal variability in sea-level change in the North Atlantic. Our new reconstruction identifies an overall rise in relative sea level (RSL) of c. 0.30 m since the start of the eighteenth century at a rate of 0.9 + 0.3mm yr-1 . Error-in-variables changepoint analysis indicates that there is no statistically significant deviation from a constant rate within the dataset. The reconstruction is broadly comparable to other tide-gauge and salt-marsh records from the European Atlantic, demonstrating coherence in sea level in this region over the last 150–300 years. In contrast, we identify significant differences in the rate and timing of RSL with records from the east coast of North America. The absence of a strong late 19th/early 20th century RSL acceleration contrasts with that recorded in salt marsh sediments along the eastern USA coastline, in particular in a well-dated and precise sea-level reconstruction from North Carolina. This suggests that this part of the North Carolina sea level record represents a regionally specific sea level acceleration. This is significant because the North Carolina record has been used as if it were globally representative within semi-empirical parameterisations of past and future sea-level change. We conclude that regional-scale differences of sea-level change highlight the value of using several, regionally representative RSL records when calibrating and testing semi-empirical models of sea level against palaeo-records. This is because by using records that potentially over-estimate sea-level rise in the past such models risk over-estimating sea-level rise in the future.

We present a new 300-year sea-level reconstruction from a salt marsh on the Isle of Wight (central English Channel, UK) that we compare to other salt-marsh and long tide-gauge records to examine spatial and temporal variability in sea-level change in the North Atlantic. Our new reconstruction identifies an overall rise in relative sea level (RSL) of c. 0.30 m since the start of the eighteenth century at a rate of 0.9 + 0.3mm yr-1 . Error-in-variables changepoint analysis indicates that there is no statistically significant deviation from a constant rate within the dataset. The reconstruction is broadly comparable to other tide-gauge and salt-marsh records from the European Atlantic, demonstrating coherence in sea level in this region over the last 150–300 years. In contrast, we identify significant differences in the rate and timing of RSL with records from the east coast of North America. The absence of a strong late 19th/early 20th century RSL acceleration contrasts with that recorded in salt marsh sediments along the eastern USA coastline, in particular in a well-dated and precise sea-level reconstruction from North Carolina. This suggests that this part of the North Carolina sea level record represents a regionally specific sea level acceleration. This is significant because the North Carolina record has been used as if it were globally representative within semi-empirical parameterisations of past and future sea-level change. We conclude that regional-scale differences of sea-level change highlight the value of using several, regionally representative RSL records when calibrating and testing semi-empirical models of sea level against palaeo-records. This is because by using records that potentially over-estimate sea-level rise in the past such models risk over-estimating sea-level rise in the future.

The hydrosphere is dynamic across the major compartments of the Earth system: the atmosphere, the oceans and seas, the land surface water, and the groundwater within the strata below the two last compartments. The global geography of the hydrosphere essentially depends on thermodynamic and mechanical processes that develop within this structure. Water-related processes at the interfaces between the compartments are complex, depending both on the interface itself, and on the characteristics of the interfaced compartments. Various aspects of global change directly or indirectly impact these interfaces and interfaced compartments and processes. Climate, sea-level, oceanographic currents and hydrological processes are all affected, while anthropogenic changes are often intense in the geographic settings corresponding to such interfaces.

In this chapter we review the history of coastal altimetry. We illustrate the challenges associated with data processing, improvement and exploitation, including (1) what altimeter data are available today and what are the issues in coastal zones; (2) what efforts are underway to fill the gaps in coastal altimetry and what still needs to be done; (3) how coastal altimetry can be used in support of coastal oceanography. After nearly two decades of data collection near coasts, the planned reprocessing of multi-mission global record now appears to be necessary for the European research efforts, in particular the main outcomes of the COASTALT project, by showcasing improved corrections (with special emphasis on the wet tropospheric effect), waveform analysis and novel retracking techniques, as well as the structure of the new processor for Envisant RA-2 coastal records. This is of interest to a broad range of data integrators who will be able to use the improved altimeter data in their operational products or services.

In the paper “Long-term and recent changes in sea level in the Falkland Islands” by P. L. Woodworth et al. (Journal of Geophysical Research, 115, C09025, doi:10.1029/2010JC006113, 2010), in paragraph 47 we adopted a value of −0.52 mm/yr for the estimated rate of present-day sea level change in the Falkland Islands due to glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA). This value was used to remove the contributions of GIA to our measurements of historical and recent rates of sea level change. However, it was based on a misreading of the data file of Peltier [2004] on the Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Web site (http://www.psmsl.org/train_and_info/geo_signals/gia/peltier). More reasonable values to apply to the observed changes since the mid-nineteenth century and in recent years would be −0.69 and −0.61 mm/yr respectively. Consequently, the long-term rate of sea level change between 1842 and the early 1980s, after correction for air pressure effects and for GIA, reported as +0.75 ± 0.35 mm/yr in paragraphs 1, 47, 55, and 61 should be +0.92 ± 0.35 mm/yr, the corresponding rate between 1842 and the midpoint of recent data of 1.06 ± 0.22 mm/yr in paragraphs 48 and 55 should be 1.23 ± 0.22 mm/yr, and the corresponding rate since 1992 reported as 2.51 ± 0.58 mm/yr in paragraphs 1 and 52 becomes 2.60 ± 0.58 mm/yr. The middle of paragraph 63 becomes “The Stanley data suggest that the rate of change of sea level in East Falkland since 1992 has been approximately 2.6 mm/yr, a rate supported by information from satellite altimetry.” These small GIA model corrections have no bearing on the main findings of our paper on the difference in the rates of sea level change between the historical (1842 to present-day) and recent (last 2 decades) epochs

In this chapter we review the history of coastal altimetry. We illustrate the challenges associated with data processing, improvement and exploitation, including (1) what altimeter data are available today and what are the issues in coastal zones; (2) what efforts are underway to fill the gaps in coastal altimetry and what still needs to be done; (3) how coastal altimetry can be used in support of coastal oceanography. After nearly two decades of data collection near coasts, the planned reprocessing of multi-mission global record now appears to be necessary for the European research efforts, in particular the main outcomes of the COASTALT project, by showcasing improved corrections (with special emphasis on the wet tropospheric effect), waveform analysis and novel retracking techniques, as well as the structure of the new processor for Envisant RA-2 coastal records. This is of interest to a broad range of data integrators who will be able to use the improved altimeter data in their operational products or services.

In the paper “Long-term and recent changes in sea level in the Falkland Islands” by P. L. Woodworth et al. (Journal of Geophysical Research, 115, C09025, doi:10.1029/2010JC006113, 2010), in paragraph 47 we adopted a value of −0.52 mm/yr for the estimated rate of present-day sea level change in the Falkland Islands due to glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA). This value was used to remove the contributions of GIA to our measurements of historical and recent rates of sea level change. However, it was based on a misreading of the data file of Peltier [2004] on the Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Web site (http://www.psmsl.org/train_and_info/geo_signals/gia/peltier). More reasonable values to apply to the observed changes since the mid-nineteenth century and in recent years would be −0.69 and −0.61 mm/yr respectively. Consequently, the long-term rate of sea level change between 1842 and the early 1980s, after correction for air pressure effects and for GIA, reported as +0.75 ± 0.35 mm/yr in paragraphs 1, 47, 55, and 61 should be +0.92 ± 0.35 mm/yr, the corresponding rate between 1842 and the midpoint of recent data of 1.06 ± 0.22 mm/yr in paragraphs 48 and 55 should be 1.23 ± 0.22 mm/yr, and the corresponding rate since 1992 reported as 2.51 ± 0.58 mm/yr in paragraphs 1 and 52 becomes 2.60 ± 0.58 mm/yr. The middle of paragraph 63 becomes “The Stanley data suggest that the rate of change of sea level in East Falkland since 1992 has been approximately 2.6 mm/yr, a rate supported by information from satellite altimetry.” These small GIA model corrections have no bearing on the main findings of our paper on the difference in the rates of sea level change between the historical (1842 to present-day) and recent (last 2 decades) epochs