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In this paper, we critically review three assumptions that govern the debate on the legitimacy of nudging interventions as a policy instrument: (1) nudges may violate autonomous decision-making; (2) nudges lend themselves to easy implementation in public policy; and (3) nudges are a simple and effective mean for steering individual choice in the right direction. Our analysis reveals that none of these assumptions are supported by recent studies entailing unique insights into nudging from three disciplinary outlooks: ethics, public administration and psychology. We find that nudges are less of a threat to autonomous choice than critics sometimes claim, making them ethically more legitimate than often assumed. Nonetheless, because their effectiveness is critically dependent on boundary conditions, their implementation is far from easy. The findings of this analysis thus suggest new opportunities for identifying when and for whom nudge interventions are preferable to more conventional public policy arrangements.

Seemingly insignificant daily practices, such as sugar usage in tea, can have a great accumulated impact on societal issues, such as obesity. That is why these behaviours are often the target of nudge interventions. However, when these behaviours are performed frequently they may turn into habits that are difficult to change. The aim of the current study was to investigate whether a portion size nudge has the potential to work in accordance with (instead of against) existing habits. Specifically, it was tested whether a portion size nudge would be more effective in reducing the amount of sugar added to tea, when people have a strong habit of adding a fixed amount of teaspoons of sugar to a cup of tea. The study (N = 123) had a mixed factorial design with teaspoon size (reduced size vs. control) as a within-subject factor, and habit disruption context condition (hot tea vs. cold tea) as a between-subjects factor. A paired t-test indicated that this nudge reduced sugar intake on average by 27% within subjects. When the context allowed for automatic enactment of the habit, the effectiveness of this nudge was moderated by habit strength. Surprisingly, the nudge effect was actually less pronounced when people had a strong habit. Implications for effective nudge interventions are discussed.

In recent years there has been increased attention for nudging as a tool to alter consumer decisions. While nudges should in theory preserve freedom of choice by respecting consumers’ preferences, empirical scrutiny of this claim is sparse. This research investigates the effectiveness of a center-stage nudge to encourage the consumption of a small portion size of soda. Specifically, in all studies we measure the extent to which strong preferences that are incongruent with the aim of the nudge (i.e. thirst and liking) and nudge congruent preferences (i.e. intentions to reduce soda consumption (study 1); Healthy diet goals (observed in study 2; manipulated in study 3) could be expressed when a choice is nudged. In three studies (n = 119; n = 184; n = 202) it was found that strong preferences are not trumped by the nudge and in fact overrule the effectiveness of a center-stage nudge. These findings contribute to the debate about the ethical considerations that are voiced concerning nudge interventions, and urge choice architects to consider consumers’ prior preferences as an important boundary condition of effective nudge interventions.

Objective: This study assessed the effect of a default nudge to reduce sedentary behaviour at work over time. Design and main outcome measures: A field study was conducted at a governmental organisation. In the present study, the default setting of sit–stand desks (SSDs) was changed from sitting to standing height during a two-week intervention. Stand-up working rates were calculated based on observations that were done prior to, during, two weeks after and two months after the intervention. Additionally, a pre-measure survey (n = 606) and post-measure survey (n = 354) were completed. Intention and social norms concerning stand-up working were compared for the 183 employees who completed both pre- and post-assessments (45.4% female, Mage = 44.21). Results: Stand-up working rates raised from 1.82% in the baseline to 13.13% during the intervention. After the nudge was removed the percentage was 10.01% after two weeks and 7.78% after two months. A multilevel analysis indicated a significant increase in both intention and social norms after the nudge intervention. Conclusions: This study shows that a default nudge can increase stand-up working rates in offices with SSDs at least until two months after the nudge intervention.

In everyday life, people encounter situations in which they need to use their self-control to solve conflicts between short-term and long-term goals. In these situations is having a high level of self-control beneficial since it is associated with having success in performing of (health) behaviors. However, little is known about the explanatory factors in the effect of self-control on performing of self-control related behavior. The current research examines the influence of task aversiveness as an explanatory role in the relationship between self-control and performing of self-control related behavior in two different behavioral areas: healthy eating, and physical training. This is conducted by measuring the level of self-control, the level of task aversiveness, and the frequency of performing of self-control related behavior. In two different samples of this study, statistical analyses have been carried out. In the large sample (n = 165), in which participants are conducting the study cross-sectionally, task aversiveness is found to explain the effect of self-control on performing of self-control related behavior. In the small sample (n = 79), in which participants are conducting the study longitudinally, no significant mediation effect of task aversiveness in the effect of self-control on performing of self-control related behaviors is found. Possible explanations for these contradictory results between the samples are discussed. Finally, some limitations of the research and suggestions for future research are provided.

In everyday life, people encounter situations in which they need to use their self-control to solve conflicts between short-term and long-term goals. In these situations is having a high level of self-control beneficial since it is associated with having success in performing of (health) behaviors. However, little is known about the explanatory factors in the effect of self-control on performing of self-control related behavior. The current research examines the influence of task aversiveness as an explanatory role in the relationship between self-control and performing of self-control related behavior in two different behavioral areas: healthy eating, and physical training. This is conducted by measuring the level of self-control, the level of task aversiveness, and the frequency of performing of self-control related behavior. In two different samples of this study, statistical analyses have been carried out. In the large sample (n = 165), in which participants are conducting the study cross-sectionally, task aversiveness is found to explain the effect of self-control on performing of self-control related behavior. In the small sample (n = 79), in which participants are conducting the study longitudinally, no significant mediation effect of task aversiveness in the effect of self-control on performing of self-control related behaviors is found. Possible explanations for these contradictory results between the samples are discussed. Finally, some limitations of the research and suggestions for future research are provided.