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1. CropPol: A dynamic, open and global database on crop pollination

Author

Allen-Perkins, A, Magrach, A, Dainese, M, Garibaldi, LA, Kleijn, D, Rader, R, Reilly, JR, Winfree, R, Lundin, O, McGrady, CM, Brittain, C, Biddinger, DJ, Artz, DR, Elle, E, Hoffman, G, Ellis, JD, Daniels, J, Gibbs, J, Campbell, JW, Brokaw, J, Wilson, JK, Mason, K, Ward, KL, Gundersen, KB, Bobiwash, K, Gut, L, Rowe, LM, Boyle, NK, Williams, NM, Joshi, NK, Rothwell, N, Gillespie, RL, Isaacs, R, Fleischer, SJ, Peterson, SS, Rao, S, Pitts-Singer, TL, Fijen, T, Boreux, V, Rundlof, M, Viana, BF, Klein, A-M, Smith, HG, Bommarco, R, Carvalheiro, LG, Ricketts, TH, Ghazoul, J, Krishnan, S, Benjamin, FE, Loureiro, J, Castro, S, Raine, NE, de Groot, GA, Horgan, FG, Hipolito, J, Smagghe, G, Meeus, I, Eeraerts, M, Potts, SG, Kremen, C, Garcia, D, Minarro, M, Crowder, DW, Pisanty, G, Mandelik, Y, Vereecken, NJ, Leclercq, N, Weekers, T, Lindstrom, SAM, Stanley, DA, Zaragoza-Trello, C, Nicholson, CC, Scheper, J, Rad, C, Marks, EAN, Mota, L, Danforth, B, Park, M, Bezerra, ADM, Freitas, BM, Mallinger, RE, Oliveira da Silva, F, Willcox, B, Ramos, DL, da Silva e Silva, FD, Lazaro, A, Alomar, D, Gonzalez-Estevez, MA, Taki, H, Cariveau, DP, Garratt, MPD, Nabaes Jodar, DN, Stewart, RIA, Ariza, D, Pisman, M, Lichtenberg, EM, Schueepp, C, Herzog, F, Entling, MH, Dupont, YL, Michener, CD, Daily, GC, Ehrlich, PR, Burns, KLW, Vila, M, Robson, A, Howlett, B, Blechschmidt, L, Jauker, F, Schwarzbach, F, Nesper, M, Diekoetter, T, Wolters, V, Castro, H, Gaspar, H, Nault, BA, Badenhausser, I, Petersen, JD, Tscharntke, T, Bretagnolle, V, Willis Chan, DS, Chacoff, N, Andersson, GKS, Jha, S, Colville, JF, Veldtman, R, Coutinho, J, Bianchi, FJJA, Sutter, L, Albrecht, M, Jeanneret, P, Zou, Y, Averill, AL, Saez, A, Sciligo, AR, Vergara, CH, Bloom, EH, Oeller, E, Badano, EI, Loeb, GM, Grab, H, Ekroos, J, Gagic, V, Cunningham, SA, Astrom, J, Cavigliasso, P, Trillo, A, Classen, A, Mauchline, AL, Montero-Castano, A, Wilby, A, Woodcock, BA, Sidhu, CS, Steffan-Dewenter, I, Vogiatzakis, IN, Herrera, JM, Otieno, M, Gikungu, MW, Cusser, SJ, Nauss, T, Nilsson, L, Knapp, J, Ortega-Marcos, JJ, Gonzalez, JA, Osborne, JL, Blanche, R, Shaw, RF, Hevia, V, Stout, J, Arthur, AD, Blochtein, B, Szentgyorgyi, H, Li, J, Mayfield, MM, Woyciechowski, M, Nunes-Silva, P, Halinski de Oliveira, R, Henry, S, Simmons, BI, Dalsgaard, B, Hansen, K, Sritongchuay, T, O'Reilly, AD, Chamorro Garcia, FJ, Nates Parra, G, Magalhaes Pigozo, C, Bartomeus, I, Allen-Perkins, A, Magrach, A, Dainese, M, Garibaldi, LA, Kleijn, D, Rader, R, Reilly, JR, Winfree, R, Lundin, O, McGrady, CM, Brittain, C, Biddinger, DJ, Artz, DR, Elle, E, Hoffman, G, Ellis, JD, Daniels, J, Gibbs, J, Campbell, JW, Brokaw, J, Wilson, JK, Mason, K, Ward, KL, Gundersen, KB, Bobiwash, K, Gut, L, Rowe, LM, Boyle, NK, Williams, NM, Joshi, NK, Rothwell, N, Gillespie, RL, Isaacs, R, Fleischer, SJ, Peterson, SS, Rao, S, Pitts-Singer, TL, Fijen, T, Boreux, V, Rundlof, M, Viana, BF, Klein, A-M, Smith, HG, Bommarco, R, Carvalheiro, LG, Ricketts, TH, Ghazoul, J, Krishnan, S, Benjamin, FE, Loureiro, J, Castro, S, Raine, NE, de Groot, GA, Horgan, FG, Hipolito, J, Smagghe, G, Meeus, I, Eeraerts, M, Potts, SG, Kremen, C, Garcia, D, Minarro, M, Crowder, DW, Pisanty, G, Mandelik, Y, Vereecken, NJ, Leclercq, N, Weekers, T, Lindstrom, SAM, Stanley, DA, Zaragoza-Trello, C, Nicholson, CC, Scheper, J, Rad, C, Marks, EAN, Mota, L, Danforth, B, Park, M, Bezerra, ADM, Freitas, BM, Mallinger, RE, Oliveira da Silva, F, Willcox, B, Ramos, DL, da Silva e Silva, FD, Lazaro, A, Alomar, D, Gonzalez-Estevez, MA, Taki, H, Cariveau, DP, Garratt, MPD, Nabaes Jodar, DN, Stewart, RIA, Ariza, D, Pisman, M, Lichtenberg, EM, Schueepp, C, Herzog, F, Entling, MH, Dupont, YL, Michener, CD, Daily, GC, Ehrlich, PR, Burns, KLW, Vila, M, Robson, A, Howlett, B, Blechschmidt, L, Jauker, F, Schwarzbach, F, Nesper, M, Diekoetter, T, Wolters, V, Castro, H, Gaspar, H, Nault, BA, Badenhausser, I, Petersen, JD, Tscharntke, T, Bretagnolle, V, Willis Chan, DS, Chacoff, N, Andersson, GKS, Jha, S, Colville, JF, Veldtman, R, Coutinho, J, Bianchi, FJJA, Sutter, L, Albrecht, M, Jeanneret, P, Zou, Y, Averill, AL, Saez, A, Sciligo, AR, Vergara, CH, Bloom, EH, Oeller, E, Badano, EI, Loeb, GM, Grab, H, Ekroos, J, Gagic, V, Cunningham, SA, Astrom, J, Cavigliasso, P, Trillo, A, Classen, A, Mauchline, AL, Montero-Castano, A, Wilby, A, Woodcock, BA, Sidhu, CS, Steffan-Dewenter, I, Vogiatzakis, IN, Herrera, JM, Otieno, M, Gikungu, MW, Cusser, SJ, Nauss, T, Nilsson, L, Knapp, J, Ortega-Marcos, JJ, Gonzalez, JA, Osborne, JL, Blanche, R, Shaw, RF, Hevia, V, Stout, J, Arthur, AD, Blochtein, B, Szentgyorgyi, H, Li, J, Mayfield, MM, Woyciechowski, M, Nunes-Silva, P, Halinski de Oliveira, R, Henry, S, Simmons, BI, Dalsgaard, B, Hansen, K, Sritongchuay, T, O'Reilly, AD, Chamorro Garcia, FJ, Nates Parra, G, Magalhaes Pigozo, C, and Bartomeus, I

Abstract

Seventy five percent of the world's food crops benefit from insect pollination. Hence, there has been increased interest in how global change drivers impact this critical ecosystem service. Because standardized data on crop pollination are rarely available, we are limited in our capacity to understand the variation in pollination benefits to crop yield, as well as to anticipate changes in this service, develop predictions, and inform management actions. Here, we present CropPol, a dynamic, open, and global database on crop pollination. It contains measurements recorded from 202 crop studies, covering 3,394 field observations, 2,552 yield measurements (i.e., berry mass, number of fruits, and fruit density [kg/ha], among others), and 47,752 insect records from 48 commercial crops distributed around the globe. CropPol comprises 32 of the 87 leading global crops and commodities that are pollinator dependent. Malus domestica is the most represented crop (32 studies), followed by Brassica napus (22 studies), Vaccinium corymbosum (13 studies), and Citrullus lanatus (12 studies). The most abundant pollinator guilds recorded are honey bees (34.22% counts), bumblebees (19.19%), flies other than Syrphidae and Bombyliidae (13.18%), other wild bees (13.13%), beetles (10.97%), Syrphidae (4.87%), and Bombyliidae (0.05%). Locations comprise 34 countries distributed among Europe (76 studies), North America (60), Latin America and the Caribbean (29), Asia (20), Oceania (10), and Africa (7). Sampling spans three decades and is concentrated on 2001-2005 (21 studies), 2006-2010 (40), 2011-2015 (88), and 2016-2020 (50). This is the most comprehensive open global data set on measurements of crop flower visitors, crop pollinators and pollination to date, and we encourage researchers to add more datasets to this database in the future. This data set is released for non-commercial use only. Credits should be given to this paper (i.e., proper citation), and the products generated with this da

Published
2022

2. Delivery of crop pollination services is an insufficient argument for wild pollinator conservation

Author

Klejin, David, Winfree, Rachael, Bartomeus, Ignasi, Carvalheiro, Luisa G., Henry, M., Isaacs, Rufus, Klein, Alexandra‐Maria, Kremen, Claire, M'Gonigle, L.K., Rader, Romina, Ricketts, Taylor H., Williams, Neal M, Adamson, Nancy Lee, Ascher, John S., Báldi, A., Batáry, Péter, Benjamin, Faye, Biesmeijer, Jacobus C., Blitzer, E., Bommarco, Riccardo, Brand, M.R., Bretagnolle, V., Button, Lindsey, Cariveau, D.P., Chifflet, R., Colville, J.F., Danforth, B.N., Elle, Elizabeth, Garratt, M.P.D., Herzog, F., Holzschuh, A., Howlett, B.G., Jauker, F., Jha, S., Knop, E., Krewenka, K.M., Le Féon, V., Mandelik, Y., May, E. A., Park, Mia G., Pisanty, G., Reemer, M., Riedinger, V., Rollin, O., Rundlöf, M., Sardiñas, H.S., Scheper, Jeroen, Sciligo, A. R., Smith, H. G., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Thorp, R., Tscharntke, T., Verhulst, J., Viana, B.F., Vaissière, B.E., Veldtman, R., Westphal, C., Potts, S.G., Klejin, David, Winfree, Rachael, Bartomeus, Ignasi, Carvalheiro, Luisa G., Henry, M., Isaacs, Rufus, Klein, Alexandra‐Maria, Kremen, Claire, M'Gonigle, L.K., Rader, Romina, Ricketts, Taylor H., Williams, Neal M, Adamson, Nancy Lee, Ascher, John S., Báldi, A., Batáry, Péter, Benjamin, Faye, Biesmeijer, Jacobus C., Blitzer, E., Bommarco, Riccardo, Brand, M.R., Bretagnolle, V., Button, Lindsey, Cariveau, D.P., Chifflet, R., Colville, J.F., Danforth, B.N., Elle, Elizabeth, Garratt, M.P.D., Herzog, F., Holzschuh, A., Howlett, B.G., Jauker, F., Jha, S., Knop, E., Krewenka, K.M., Le Féon, V., Mandelik, Y., May, E. A., Park, Mia G., Pisanty, G., Reemer, M., Riedinger, V., Rollin, O., Rundlöf, M., Sardiñas, H.S., Scheper, Jeroen, Sciligo, A. R., Smith, H. G., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Thorp, R., Tscharntke, T., Verhulst, J., Viana, B.F., Vaissière, B.E., Veldtman, R., Westphal, C., and Potts, S.G.

Abstract

© 2015 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved. There is compelling evidence that more diverse ecosystems deliver greater benefits to people, and these ecosystem services have become a key argument for biodiversity conservation. However, it is unclear how much biodiversity is needed to deliver ecosystem services in a cost-effective way. Here we show that, while the contribution of wild bees to crop production is significant, service delivery is restricted to a limited subset of all known bee species. Across crops, years and biogeographical regions, crop-visiting wild bee communities are dominated by a small number of common species, and threatened species are rarely observed on crops. Dominant crop pollinators persist under agricultural expansion and many are easily enhanced by simple conservation measures, suggesting that cost-effective management strategies to promote crop pollination should target a different set of species than management strategies to promote threatened bees. Conserving the biological diversity of bees therefore requires more than just ecosystem-service-based arguments.

Published
2015

3. Correlations between physical and chemical defences in plants : Tradeoffs, syndromes, or just many different ways to skin a herbivorous cat?

Author

Moles, A. T., Peco, B., Wallis, I. R., Foley, W. J., Poore, A. G. B., Seabloom, E. W., Vesk, P. A., Bisigato, A. J., Cella-Pizarro, L., Clark, C. J., Cohen, P. S., Cornwell, W. K., Edwards, W., Ejrnæs, R., Gonzales-Ojeda, T., Graae, B. J., Hay, G., Lumbwe, F. C., Magaña-Rodríguez, B., Moore, B. D., Peri, P. L., Poulsen, J. R., Stegen, J. C., Veldtman, R., von Zeipel, Hugo, Andrew, N. R., Boulter, S. L., Borer, E. T., Cornelissen, J. H. C., Farji-Brener, A. G., Degabriel, J. L., Jurado, E., Kyhn, L. A., Low, B., Mulder, C. P. H., Reardon-Smith, K., Rodríguez-Velázquez, J., De Fortier, A., Zheng, Z., Blendinger, P. G., Enquist, B. J., Facelli, J. M., Knight, T., Majer, J. D., Martínez-Ramos, M., Mcquillan, P., Hui, F. K. C., Moles, A. T., Peco, B., Wallis, I. R., Foley, W. J., Poore, A. G. B., Seabloom, E. W., Vesk, P. A., Bisigato, A. J., Cella-Pizarro, L., Clark, C. J., Cohen, P. S., Cornwell, W. K., Edwards, W., Ejrnæs, R., Gonzales-Ojeda, T., Graae, B. J., Hay, G., Lumbwe, F. C., Magaña-Rodríguez, B., Moore, B. D., Peri, P. L., Poulsen, J. R., Stegen, J. C., Veldtman, R., von Zeipel, Hugo, Andrew, N. R., Boulter, S. L., Borer, E. T., Cornelissen, J. H. C., Farji-Brener, A. G., Degabriel, J. L., Jurado, E., Kyhn, L. A., Low, B., Mulder, C. P. H., Reardon-Smith, K., Rodríguez-Velázquez, J., De Fortier, A., Zheng, Z., Blendinger, P. G., Enquist, B. J., Facelli, J. M., Knight, T., Majer, J. D., Martínez-Ramos, M., Mcquillan, P., and Hui, F. K. C.

Abstract

Most plant species have a range of traits that deter herbivores. However, understanding of how different defences are related to one another is surprisingly weak. Many authors argue that defence traits trade off against one another, while others argue that they form coordinated defence syndromes. We collected a dataset of unprecedented taxonomic and geographic scope (261 species spanning 80 families, from 75 sites across the globe) to investigate relationships among four chemical and six physical defences. Five of the 45 pairwise correlations between defence traits were significant and three of these were tradeoffs. The relationship between species' overall chemical and physical defence levels was marginally nonsignificant (P = 0.08), and remained nonsignificant after accounting for phylogeny, growth form and abundance. Neither categorical principal component analysis (PCA) nor hierarchical cluster analysis supported the idea that species displayed defence syndromes. Our results do not support arguments for tradeoffs or for coordinated defence syndromes. Rather, plants display a range of combinations of defence traits. We suggest this lack of consistent defence syndromes may be adaptive, resulting from selective pressure to deploy a different combination of defences to coexisting species., CODEN: NEPHA

Published
2013
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4. Correlations between physical and chemical defences in plants: tradeoffs, syndromes, or just many different ways to skin a herbivorous cat?

Author

Moles, A., Peco, B., Wallis, I., Foley, W., Poore, A., Seabloom, E., Vesk, P., Bisigato, A., Cella-Pizarro, L., Clark, C., Cohen, P., Cornwell, W., Edwards, W., Ejrnaes, R., Gonzalez-Ojeda, T., Graae, B., Hay, G., Lumbwe, F., Magana-Rodriquez, B., Moore, B., Peri, P., Poulsen, J., Stegen, J., Veldtman, R., Zeipel, H., Andrew, N., Boulter, S., Borer, E., Cornelissen, J., Farji-Brener, A., DeGabriel, J., Jurado, E., Kyhn, L., Mulder, C., Low, B., Reardon-Smith, K., Rodriguez-Velazquez, J., Fortier, A., Zheng, Z., Blendinger, P., Enquist, B., Facelli, J., Knight, T., Majer, Jonathan, Martinez-Ramos, M., McQuillan, P., Hui, F., Moles, A., Peco, B., Wallis, I., Foley, W., Poore, A., Seabloom, E., Vesk, P., Bisigato, A., Cella-Pizarro, L., Clark, C., Cohen, P., Cornwell, W., Edwards, W., Ejrnaes, R., Gonzalez-Ojeda, T., Graae, B., Hay, G., Lumbwe, F., Magana-Rodriquez, B., Moore, B., Peri, P., Poulsen, J., Stegen, J., Veldtman, R., Zeipel, H., Andrew, N., Boulter, S., Borer, E., Cornelissen, J., Farji-Brener, A., DeGabriel, J., Jurado, E., Kyhn, L., Mulder, C., Low, B., Reardon-Smith, K., Rodriguez-Velazquez, J., Fortier, A., Zheng, Z., Blendinger, P., Enquist, B., Facelli, J., Knight, T., Majer, Jonathan, Martinez-Ramos, M., McQuillan, P., and Hui, F.

Abstract

Most plant species have a range of traits that deter herbivores. However, understanding of how different defences are related to one another is surprisingly weak. Many authors argue that defence traits trade off against one another, while others argue that they form coordinated defence syndromes. We collected a dataset of unprecedented taxonomic and geographic scope (261 species spanning 80 families, from 75 sites across the globe) to investigate relationships among four chemical and six physical defences. Five of the 45 pairwise correlations between defence traits were significant and three of these were tradeoffs. The relationship between species’ overall chemical and physical defence levels was marginally nonsignificant (P = 0.08), and remained nonsignificant after accounting for phylogeny, growth form and abundance. Neither categorical principal component analysis (PCA) nor hierarchical cluster analysis supported the idea that species displayed defence syndromes. Our results do not support arguments for tradeoffs or for coordinated defence syndromes. Rather, plants display a range of combinations of defence traits. We suggest this lack of consistent defence syndromes may be adaptive, resulting from selective pressure to deploy a different combination of defences to coexisting species.

Published
2013

5. Putting plant resistance traits on the map : A test of the idea that plants are better defended at lower latitudes

Author

Moles, A. T., Wallis, I. R., Foley, W. J., Warton, D. I., Stegen, J. C., Bisigato, A. J., Cella-Pizarro, L., Clark, C. J., Cohen, P. S., Cornwell, W. K., Edwards, W., Ejrnaes, R., Gonzales-Ojeda, T., Graae, B. J., Hay, G., Lumbwe, F. C., Magaña-Rodriguez, B., Moore, B. D., Peri, P. L., Poulsen, J. R., Veldtman, R., von Zeipel, Hugo, Andrew, N. R., Boulter, S. L., Borer, E. T., Campón, F. F., Coll, M., Farji-Brener, A. G., De Gabriel, J., Jurado, E., Kyhn, L. A., Low, B., Mulder, C. P. H., Reardon-Smith, K., Rodriuez-Velázquez, J., Seabloom, E. W., Vesk, P. A., van Cauter, A., Waldram, M. S., Zheng, Z., Blendinger, P. G., Enquist, B. J., Facelli, J. M., Knight, T., Majer, J. D., Martínez-Ramos, M., Mcquillan, P., Prior, L. D., Moles, A. T., Wallis, I. R., Foley, W. J., Warton, D. I., Stegen, J. C., Bisigato, A. J., Cella-Pizarro, L., Clark, C. J., Cohen, P. S., Cornwell, W. K., Edwards, W., Ejrnaes, R., Gonzales-Ojeda, T., Graae, B. J., Hay, G., Lumbwe, F. C., Magaña-Rodriguez, B., Moore, B. D., Peri, P. L., Poulsen, J. R., Veldtman, R., von Zeipel, Hugo, Andrew, N. R., Boulter, S. L., Borer, E. T., Campón, F. F., Coll, M., Farji-Brener, A. G., De Gabriel, J., Jurado, E., Kyhn, L. A., Low, B., Mulder, C. P. H., Reardon-Smith, K., Rodriuez-Velázquez, J., Seabloom, E. W., Vesk, P. A., van Cauter, A., Waldram, M. S., Zheng, Z., Blendinger, P. G., Enquist, B. J., Facelli, J. M., Knight, T., Majer, J. D., Martínez-Ramos, M., Mcquillan, P., and Prior, L. D.

Abstract

It has long been believed that plant species from the tropics have higher levels of traits associated with resistance to herbivores than do species from higher latitudes. A meta-analysis recently showed that the published literature does not support this theory. However, the idea has never been tested using data gathered with consistent methods from a wide range of latitudes. • We quantified the relationship between latitude and a broad range of chemical and physical traits across 301 species from 75 sites world-wide. • Six putative resistance traits, including tannins, the concentration of lipids (an indicator of oils, waxes and resins), and leaf toughness were greater in high-latitude species. Six traits, including cyanide production and the presence of spines, were unrelated to latitude. Only ash content (an indicator of inorganic substances such as calcium oxalates and phytoliths) and the properties of species with delayed greening were higher in the tropics. • Our results do not support the hypothesis that tropical plants have higher levels of resistance traits than do plants from higher latitudes. If anything, plants have higher resistance toward the poles. The greater resistance traits of high-latitude species might be explained by the greater cost of losing a given amount of leaf tissue in low-productivity environments. © 2011 New Phytologist Trust.

Published
2011
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6. Putting plant resistance traits on the map: a test of the idea that plants are better defended at lower latitudes

Author

Moles, A., Wallis, I., Foley, W., Warton, D., Stegen, J., Bisigato, A., Cella-Pizarro, L., Clark, C., Cohen, P., Cornwell, W., Edwards, W., Ejrnaes, R., Gonzalez-Ojeda, T., Graae, B., Hay, G., Lumbwe, F., Magana-Rodriquez, B., Moore, B., Peri, P., Poulsen, J., Veldtman, R., von Zeipel, H., Andrew, N., Boulter, S., Borer, E., Fernandez Campon, F., Coll, M., Farji-Brener, A., De Gabriel, J., Jurado, E., Kyhn, L., Low, B., Mulder, C., Reardon-Smith, K., Velazquez-Rodriguez, J., Seabloom, E., Vesk, P., Cauter, A., Waldram, M., Zheng, Z., Blendinger, P., Enquist, B., Facelli, J., Knight, T., Majer, Jonathan, Martinez-Ramos, M., McQuillan, P., Prior, L., Moles, A., Wallis, I., Foley, W., Warton, D., Stegen, J., Bisigato, A., Cella-Pizarro, L., Clark, C., Cohen, P., Cornwell, W., Edwards, W., Ejrnaes, R., Gonzalez-Ojeda, T., Graae, B., Hay, G., Lumbwe, F., Magana-Rodriquez, B., Moore, B., Peri, P., Poulsen, J., Veldtman, R., von Zeipel, H., Andrew, N., Boulter, S., Borer, E., Fernandez Campon, F., Coll, M., Farji-Brener, A., De Gabriel, J., Jurado, E., Kyhn, L., Low, B., Mulder, C., Reardon-Smith, K., Velazquez-Rodriguez, J., Seabloom, E., Vesk, P., Cauter, A., Waldram, M., Zheng, Z., Blendinger, P., Enquist, B., Facelli, J., Knight, T., Majer, Jonathan, Martinez-Ramos, M., McQuillan, P., and Prior, L.

Abstract

It has long been believed that plant species from the tropics have higher levels of traits associated with resistance to herbivores than do species from higher latitudes. A meta-analysis recently showed that the published literature does not support this theory. However, the idea has never been tested using data gathered with consistent methods from a wide range of latitudes. We quantified the relationship between latitude and a broad range of chemical and physical traits across 301 species from 75 sites world-wide. Six putative resistance traits, including tannins, the concentration of lipids (an indicator of oils, waxes and resins), and leaf toughness were greater in high-latitude species. Six traits, including cyanide production and the presence of spines, were unrelated to latitude. Only ash content (an indicator of inorganic substances such as calcium oxalates and phytoliths) and the properties of species with delayed greening were higher in the tropics. Our results do not support the hypothesis that tropical plants have higher levels of resistance traits than do plants from higher latitudes. If anything, plants have higher resistance toward the poles. The greater resistance traits of high-latitude species might be explained by the greater cost of losing a given amount of leaf tissue in low-productivity environments.

Published
2011

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