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This paper presents an unsupervised transformer-based framework for temporal activity segmentation which leverages not only frame-level cues but also segment-level cues. This is in contrast with previous methods which often rely on frame-level information only. Our approach begins with a frame-level prediction module which estimates framewise action classes via a transformer encoder. The frame-level prediction module is trained in an unsupervised manner via temporal optimal transport. To exploit segment-level information, we utilize a segment-level prediction module and a frame-to-segment alignment module. The former includes a transformer decoder for estimating video transcripts, while the latter matches frame-level features with segment-level features, yielding permutation-aware segmentation results. Moreover, inspired by temporal optimal transport, we introduce simple-yet-effective pseudo labels for unsupervised training of the above modules. Our experiments on four public datasets, i.e., 50 Salads, YouTube Instructions, Breakfast, and Desktop Assembly show that our approach achieves comparable or better performance than previous methods in unsupervised activity segmentation., Comment: Accepted to WACV 2024

This paper presents a self-supervised temporal video alignment framework which is useful for several fine-grained human activity understanding applications. In contrast with the state-of-the-art method of CASA, where sequences of 3D skeleton coordinates are taken directly as input, our key idea is to use sequences of 2D skeleton heatmaps as input. Unlike CASA which performs self-attention in the temporal domain only, we feed 2D skeleton heatmaps to a video transformer which performs self-attention both in the spatial and temporal domains for extracting effective spatiotemporal and contextual features. In addition, we introduce simple heatmap augmentation techniques based on 2D skeletons for self-supervised learning. Despite the lack of 3D information, our approach achieves not only higher accuracy but also better robustness against missing and noisy keypoints than CASA. Furthermore, extensive evaluations on three public datasets, i.e., Penn Action, IKEA ASM, and H2O, demonstrate that our approach outperforms previous methods in different fine-grained human activity understanding tasks. Finally, fusing 2D skeleton heatmaps with RGB videos yields the state-of-the-art on all metrics and datasets. To our best knowledge, our work is the first to utilize 2D skeleton heatmap inputs and the first to explore multi-modality fusion for temporal video alignment.

This paper presents a 2D skeleton-based action segmentation method with applications in fine-grained human activity recognition. In contrast with state-of-the-art methods which directly take sequences of 3D skeleton coordinates as inputs and apply Graph Convolutional Networks (GCNs) for spatiotemporal feature learning, our main idea is to use sequences of 2D skeleton heatmaps as inputs and employ Temporal Convolutional Networks (TCNs) to extract spatiotemporal features. Despite lacking 3D information, our approach yields comparable/superior performances and better robustness against missing keypoints than previous methods on action segmentation datasets. Moreover, we improve the performances further by using both 2D skeleton heatmaps and RGB videos as inputs. To our best knowledge, this is the first work to utilize 2D skeleton heatmap inputs and the first work to explore 2D skeleton+RGB fusion for action segmentation., Comment: Accepted to ICRA 2024

When paramedics arrive at an accident site there are a lot of complex variables that they must keep in mind when making decisions. Thus, a problem of too much information presented at once makes the decision-making harder. To aid paramedics, smart glasses can be used to streamline the workflow and present relevant information immediately. Attempts at implementing smart glasses within prehospital care have previously been made. However, with no extensive research regarding what an implementation of how the user interface could look like has been presented. In addition, providing paramedics with optimal information to aid in decision making. Thus the goal of this thesis is to develop an Android application for the Google Glass Enterprise Edition 2 to visualise a patient's vital signs to aid paramedics to focus more on treating the patient. A limitation of the project was to only focus on the visualisation of the following vital parameters were focused: pulse from ECG, SpO2, EtCO2, and NiBP. To determine what would be demanded from the application, interviews with paramedics of varying seniority ranging from 7 to 23 years experience, were conducted. The paramedics interviewed were from different regions within Sweden and the UK. This gave a generalised understanding of how paramedics work and what would be desired by paramedics from smart glasses as an assisting tool. The Android application used a Wi-Fi Direct connection with the MobiMed Patient Unit which was transmitting the patient's vital sign data. The data was packaged in a JSON file and then transmitted over User Datagram Protocol to the Google Glass. The data was visualised with a focused layout of only one vital sign showing. In addition, a dual view where two vitals are shown simultaneously was created. The implementation was then run through different experiments to ensure that the glasses would be able to perform under relevant circumstances that could occur at an accident site. Finally, several topics for, När ambulanspersonal anländer till en olycksplats finns många komplexa variabler som bör beaktas vid fattande av ett avgörande beslut. Genom detta uppstår ett problem där ett överflöde av information presenteras samtidigt vilket försvårar beslutstagande. För att lösa detta introduceras smarta glasögon då det kan effektivisera arbetet och medföra relevant information med en gång. Försök att implementera smarta glasögon inom den prehospitala vården har tidigare gjorts. Men utan omfattande forskning om hur en implementering skulle se ut samt att tillföra ambulanspersonal med information för att underlätta deras beslutsfattande har tidigare gjorts. Därför är målet med detta examensarbete att utveckla en Android-applikation för Google Glass för att visualisera en patients vitalparametrar för att hjälpa ambulanspersonal att fokusera mer på att behandla patienten. För att avgränsa projektet fokuserades visualisering på följande patient parametrarna; puls från EKG, SpO2, EtCO2, och NiBP. För att avgöra vad som skulle krävas från ambulanspersonalen så utfördes en intervjustudie med personal av varierande tjänstgöringstid från 7 till 23 år. Ambulanspersonalen som intervjuades var från olika län i Sverige och Storbritannien. Detta gav en generaliserad förståelse för hur ambulanspersonal arbetar och vad som skulle önskas av ambulanspersonal från smarta glasögon som ett hjälpmedel. Android-applikationen som skapades använde en Wi-Fi Direct-anslutning med MobiMed patientenheten som överför patientens vitalparametrar. Informationen paketerades i en JSON-fil och överfördes sedan via UDP till Google Glass. Data visualiserades med en fokuserad design där endast en parameter visas. Dessutom skapades en dubbelparameter design där två parametrar visas samtidigt. Implementeringen kördes sedan genom olika experiment för att säkerställa att glasögonen skulle kunna prestera under vissa omständigheter som skulle kunna inträffa vid vårdtillfällen. Slutligen undersöktes framtida utvecklingsarb

When paramedics arrive at an accident site there are a lot of complex variables that they must keep in mind when making decisions. Thus, a problem of too much information presented at once makes the decision-making harder. To aid paramedics, smart glasses can be used to streamline the workflow and present relevant information immediately. Attempts at implementing smart glasses within prehospital care have previously been made. However, with no extensive research regarding what an implementation of how the user interface could look like has been presented. In addition, providing paramedics with optimal information to aid in decision making. Thus the goal of this thesis is to develop an Android application for the Google Glass Enterprise Edition 2 to visualise a patient's vital signs to aid paramedics to focus more on treating the patient. A limitation of the project was to only focus on the visualisation of the following vital parameters were focused: pulse from ECG, SpO2, EtCO2, and NiBP. To determine what would be demanded from the application, interviews with paramedics of varying seniority ranging from 7 to 23 years experience, were conducted. The paramedics interviewed were from different regions within Sweden and the UK. This gave a generalised understanding of how paramedics work and what would be desired by paramedics from smart glasses as an assisting tool. The Android application used a Wi-Fi Direct connection with the MobiMed Patient Unit which was transmitting the patient's vital sign data. The data was packaged in a JSON file and then transmitted over User Datagram Protocol to the Google Glass. The data was visualised with a focused layout of only one vital sign showing. In addition, a dual view where two vitals are shown simultaneously was created. The implementation was then run through different experiments to ensure that the glasses would be able to perform under relevant circumstances that could occur at an accident site. Finally, several topics for, När ambulanspersonal anländer till en olycksplats finns många komplexa variabler som bör beaktas vid fattande av ett avgörande beslut. Genom detta uppstår ett problem där ett överflöde av information presenteras samtidigt vilket försvårar beslutstagande. För att lösa detta introduceras smarta glasögon då det kan effektivisera arbetet och medföra relevant information med en gång. Försök att implementera smarta glasögon inom den prehospitala vården har tidigare gjorts. Men utan omfattande forskning om hur en implementering skulle se ut samt att tillföra ambulanspersonal med information för att underlätta deras beslutsfattande har tidigare gjorts. Därför är målet med detta examensarbete att utveckla en Android-applikation för Google Glass för att visualisera en patients vitalparametrar för att hjälpa ambulanspersonal att fokusera mer på att behandla patienten. För att avgränsa projektet fokuserades visualisering på följande patient parametrarna; puls från EKG, SpO2, EtCO2, och NiBP. För att avgöra vad som skulle krävas från ambulanspersonalen så utfördes en intervjustudie med personal av varierande tjänstgöringstid från 7 till 23 år. Ambulanspersonalen som intervjuades var från olika län i Sverige och Storbritannien. Detta gav en generaliserad förståelse för hur ambulanspersonal arbetar och vad som skulle önskas av ambulanspersonal från smarta glasögon som ett hjälpmedel. Android-applikationen som skapades använde en Wi-Fi Direct-anslutning med MobiMed patientenheten som överför patientens vitalparametrar. Informationen paketerades i en JSON-fil och överfördes sedan via UDP till Google Glass. Data visualiserades med en fokuserad design där endast en parameter visas. Dessutom skapades en dubbelparameter design där två parametrar visas samtidigt. Implementeringen kördes sedan genom olika experiment för att säkerställa att glasögonen skulle kunna prestera under vissa omständigheter som skulle kunna inträffa vid vårdtillfällen. Slutligen undersöktes framtida utvecklingsarb

We present a novel method for few-shot video classification, which performs appearance and temporal alignments. In particular, given a pair of query and support videos, we conduct appearance alignment via frame-level feature matching to achieve the appearance similarity score between the videos, while utilizing temporal order-preserving priors for obtaining the temporal similarity score between the videos. Moreover, we introduce a few-shot video classification framework that leverages the above appearance and temporal similarity scores across multiple steps, namely prototype-based training and testing as well as inductive and transductive prototype refinement. To the best of our knowledge, our work is the first to explore transductive few-shot video classification. Extensive experiments on both Kinetics and Something-Something V2 datasets show that both appearance and temporal alignments are crucial for datasets with temporal order sensitivity such as Something-Something V2. Our approach achieves similar or better results than previous methods on both datasets. Our code is available at https://github.com/VinAIResearch/fsvc-ata., Comment: Accepted to ECCV 2022

We introduce a novel approach for temporal activity segmentation with timestamp supervision. Our main contribution is a graph convolutional network, which is learned in an end-to-end manner to exploit both frame features and connections between neighboring frames to generate dense framewise labels from sparse timestamp labels. The generated dense framewise labels can then be used to train the segmentation model. In addition, we propose a framework for alternating learning of both the segmentation model and the graph convolutional model, which first initializes and then iteratively refines the learned models. Detailed experiments on four public datasets, including 50 Salads, GTEA, Breakfast, and Desktop Assembly, show that our method is superior to the multi-layer perceptron baseline, while performing on par with or better than the state of the art in temporal activity segmentation with timestamp supervision., Comment: Accepted to IROS 2022

In this work, we propose to use out-of-distribution samples, i.e., unlabeled samples coming from outside the target classes, to improve few-shot learning. Specifically, we exploit the easily available out-of-distribution samples to drive the classifier to avoid irrelevant features by maximizing the distance from prototypes to out-of-distribution samples while minimizing that of in-distribution samples (i.e., support, query data). Our approach is simple to implement, agnostic to feature extractors, lightweight without any additional cost for pre-training, and applicable to both inductive and transductive settings. Extensive experiments on various standard benchmarks demonstrate that the proposed method consistently improves the performance of pretrained networks with different architectures., Comment: Accepted at NeurIPS 2021 (First two authors contribute equally)

We present a novel approach for unsupervised activity segmentation which uses video frame clustering as a pretext task and simultaneously performs representation learning and online clustering. This is in contrast with prior works where representation learning and clustering are often performed sequentially. We leverage temporal information in videos by employing temporal optimal transport. In particular, we incorporate a temporal regularization term which preserves the temporal order of the activity into the standard optimal transport module for computing pseudo-label cluster assignments. The temporal optimal transport module enables our approach to learn effective representations for unsupervised activity segmentation. Furthermore, previous methods require storing learned features for the entire dataset before clustering them in an offline manner, whereas our approach processes one mini-batch at a time in an online manner. Extensive evaluations on three public datasets, i.e. 50-Salads, YouTube Instructions, and Breakfast, and our dataset, i.e., Desktop Assembly, show that our approach performs on par with or better than previous methods, despite having significantly less memory constraints. Our code and dataset are available on our research website: https://retrocausal.ai/research, Comment: Presented at CVPR 2022

We present a self-supervised approach for learning video representations using temporal video alignment as a pretext task, while exploiting both frame-level and video-level information. We leverage a novel combination of temporal alignment loss and temporal regularization terms, which can be used as supervision signals for training an encoder network. Specifically, the temporal alignment loss (i.e., Soft-DTW) aims for the minimum cost for temporally aligning videos in the embedding space. However, optimizing solely for this term leads to trivial solutions, particularly, one where all frames get mapped to a small cluster in the embedding space. To overcome this problem, we propose a temporal regularization term (i.e., Contrastive-IDM) which encourages different frames to be mapped to different points in the embedding space. Extensive evaluations on various tasks, including action phase classification, action phase progression, and fine-grained frame retrieval, on three datasets, namely Pouring, Penn Action, and IKEA ASM, show superior performance of our approach over state-of-the-art methods for self-supervised representation learning from videos. In addition, our method provides significant performance gain where labeled data is lacking. Our code and labels are available on our research website: https://retrocausal.ai/research, Comment: Presented at CVPR 2021

The Emergency department at Södersjukhuset currently suffers from very long waiting times. This is partly due to problems within visualisation and mapping of patient data and other information that is fundamental in the handling of patients at the Emergency department. This led to a need in the creation of improvement suggestions to the visualisation of the patient flow between the Emergency department and the Gastroenterology department at Södersjukhuset. During the project, a simulated graphical user interface was created with the purpose of mimicking Södersjukhusets current patient flow. This simulated user interface would visualise the patient flow between the Emergency department and the Gastroenterology department. Additionally, a patient symptoms estimation algorithm was implemented to guess the likelihood of a patient being admitted to a department. The result shows that there are many possible improvements to Södersjukhusets current hospital information system, TakeCare, that would facilitate the care coordinators work and in turn lower the waiting times at the Emergency department., Akutmottagningen på Södersjukhuset har i dagsläget väldigt långa väntetider. Detta beror till viss del utav problem inom visualiseringen och kartläggning av patient data och annan fundamental information för att hantera patienter på akutmottagningen. Detta ledde till att det finns ett behov att skapa förbättringsförslag på visualiseringen av patientflödet mellan akutmottagningen och gastroenterologiavdelningen på Södersjukhuset. Under projektets gång skapades ett simulerat användargränssnitt med syfte att efterlikna Södersjukhusets nuvarande patientflöde. Denna lösning visualiserar patientflödet mellan akutmottagningen och gastroenterologiavdelningen. Dessutom implementerades en enkel sorteringsalgoritm som kan bedöma sannolikheten om en patient skall bli inlagd på en avdelning. Resultatet visar att det finns flera möjliga förbättringar i Södersjukhusets nuvarande elektroniska journalsystemet, TakeCare, som skulle underlätta vårdkoordinatorernas arbete och därmed sänka väntetiderna på akutmottagningen.

The Emergency department at Södersjukhuset currently suffers from very long waiting times. This is partly due to problems within visualisation and mapping of patient data and other information that is fundamental in the handling of patients at the Emergency department. This led to a need in the creation of improvement suggestions to the visualisation of the patient flow between the Emergency department and the Gastroenterology department at Södersjukhuset. During the project, a simulated graphical user interface was created with the purpose of mimicking Södersjukhusets current patient flow. This simulated user interface would visualise the patient flow between the Emergency department and the Gastroenterology department. Additionally, a patient symptoms estimation algorithm was implemented to guess the likelihood of a patient being admitted to a department. The result shows that there are many possible improvements to Södersjukhusets current hospital information system, TakeCare, that would facilitate the care coordinators work and in turn lower the waiting times at the Emergency department., Akutmottagningen på Södersjukhuset har i dagsläget väldigt långa väntetider. Detta beror till viss del utav problem inom visualiseringen och kartläggning av patient data och annan fundamental information för att hantera patienter på akutmottagningen. Detta ledde till att det finns ett behov att skapa förbättringsförslag på visualiseringen av patientflödet mellan akutmottagningen och gastroenterologiavdelningen på Södersjukhuset. Under projektets gång skapades ett simulerat användargränssnitt med syfte att efterlikna Södersjukhusets nuvarande patientflöde. Denna lösning visualiserar patientflödet mellan akutmottagningen och gastroenterologiavdelningen. Dessutom implementerades en enkel sorteringsalgoritm som kan bedöma sannolikheten om en patient skall bli inlagd på en avdelning. Resultatet visar att det finns flera möjliga förbättringar i Södersjukhusets nuvarande elektroniska journalsystemet, TakeCare, som skulle underlätta vårdkoordinatorernas arbete och därmed sänka väntetiderna på akutmottagningen.

Monocular visual odometry (VO) suffers severely from error accumulation during frame-to-frame pose estimation. In this paper, we present a self-supervised learning method for VO with special consideration for consistency over longer sequences. To this end, we model the long-term dependency in pose prediction using a pose network that features a two-layer convolutional LSTM module. We train the networks with purely self-supervised losses, including a cycle consistency loss that mimics the loop closure module in geometric VO. Inspired by prior geometric systems, we allow the networks to see beyond a small temporal window during training, through a novel a loss that incorporates temporally distant (e.g., O(100)) frames. Given GPU memory constraints, we propose a stage-wise training mechanism, where the first stage operates in a local time window and the second stage refines the poses with a "global" loss given the first stage features. We demonstrate competitive results on several standard VO datasets, including KITTI and TUM RGB-D., Comment: ECCV 2020. Project page: https://yuliang.vision/LTMVO

Classical monocular Simultaneous Localization And Mapping (SLAM) and the recently emerging convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for monocular depth prediction represent two largely disjoint approaches towards building a 3D map of the surrounding environment. In this paper, we demonstrate that the coupling of these two by leveraging the strengths of each mitigates the other's shortcomings. Specifically, we propose a joint narrow and wide baseline based self-improving framework, where on the one hand the CNN-predicted depth is leveraged to perform pseudo RGB-D feature-based SLAM, leading to better accuracy and robustness than the monocular RGB SLAM baseline. On the other hand, the bundle-adjusted 3D scene structures and camera poses from the more principled geometric SLAM are injected back into the depth network through novel wide baseline losses proposed for improving the depth prediction network, which then continues to contribute towards better pose and 3D structure estimation in the next iteration. We emphasize that our framework only requires unlabeled monocular videos in both training and inference stages, and yet is able to outperform state-of-the-art self-supervised monocular and stereo depth prediction networks (e.g, Monodepth2) and feature-based monocular SLAM system (i.e, ORB-SLAM). Extensive experiments on KITTI and TUM RGB-D datasets verify the superiority of our self-improving geometry-CNN framework., Comment: ECCV 2020, Project Page: https://lokender.github.io/self-improving-SLAM.html

Inexpensive sensing and computation, as well as insurance innovations, have made smart dashboard cameras ubiquitous. Increasingly, simple model-driven computer vision algorithms focused on lane departures or safe following distances are finding their way into these devices. Unfortunately, the long-tailed distribution of road hazards means that these hand-crafted pipelines are inadequate for driver safety systems. We propose to apply data-driven anomaly detection ideas from deep learning to dashcam videos, which hold the promise of bridging this gap. Unfortunately, there exists almost no literature applying anomaly understanding to moving cameras, and correspondingly there is also a lack of relevant datasets. To counter this issue, we present a large and diverse dataset of truck dashcam videos, namely RetroTrucks, that includes normal and anomalous driving scenes. We apply: (i) one-class classification loss and (ii) reconstruction-based loss, for anomaly detection on RetroTrucks as well as on existing static-camera datasets. We introduce formulations for modeling object interactions in this context as priors. Our experiments indicate that our dataset is indeed more challenging than standard anomaly detection datasets, and previous anomaly detection methods do not perform well here out-of-the-box. In addition, we share insights into the behavior of these two important families of anomaly detection approaches on dashcam data., Comment: To appear at IV 2020

In this paper, we derive a new differential homography that can account for the scanline-varying camera poses in Rolling Shutter (RS) cameras, and demonstrate its application to carry out RS-aware image stitching and rectification at one stroke. Despite the high complexity of RS geometry, we focus in this paper on a special yet common input -- two consecutive frames from a video stream, wherein the inter-frame motion is restricted from being arbitrarily large. This allows us to adopt simpler differential motion model, leading to a straightforward and practical minimal solver. To deal with non-planar scene and camera parallax in stitching, we further propose an RS-aware spatially-varying homography field in the principle of As-Projective-As-Possible (APAP). We show superior performance over state-of-the-art methods both in RS image stitching and rectification, especially for images captured by hand-held shaking cameras., Comment: ECCV 2020. Project web: https://www.nec-labs.com/~mas/RS-APAP

Self-calibration of camera intrinsics and radial distortion has a long history of research in the computer vision community. However, it remains rare to see real applications of such techniques to modern Simultaneous Localization And Mapping (SLAM) systems, especially in driving scenarios. In this paper, we revisit the geometric approach to this problem, and provide a theoretical proof that explicitly shows the ambiguity between radial distortion and scene depth when two-view geometry is used to self-calibrate the radial distortion. In view of such geometric degeneracy, we propose a learning approach that trains a convolutional neural network (CNN) on a large amount of synthetic data. We demonstrate the utility of our proposed method by applying it as a checkerboard-free calibration tool for SLAM, achieving comparable or superior performance to previous learning and hand-crafted methods., Comment: To appear at IROS 2019

Interest point descriptors have fueled progress on almost every problem in computer vision. Recent advances in deep neural networks have enabled task-specific learned descriptors that outperform hand-crafted descriptors on many problems. We demonstrate that commonly used metric learning approaches do not optimally leverage the feature hierarchies learned in a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), especially when applied to the task of geometric feature matching. While a metric loss applied to the deepest layer of a CNN, is often expected to yield ideal features irrespective of the task, in fact the growing receptive field as well as striding effects cause shallower features to be better at high precision matching tasks. We leverage this insight together with explicit supervision at multiple levels of the feature hierarchy for better regularization, to learn more effective descriptors in the context of geometric matching tasks. Further, we propose to use activation maps at different layers of a CNN, as an effective and principled replacement for the multi-resolution image pyramids often used for matching tasks. We propose concrete CNN architectures employing these ideas, and evaluate them on multiple datasets for 2D and 3D geometric matching as well as optical flow, demonstrating state-of-the-art results and generalization across datasets., Comment: Accepted to ECCV 2018

Recent data-driven approaches to scene interpretation predominantly pose inference as an end-to-end black-box mapping, commonly performed by a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN). However, decades of work on perceptual organization in both human and machine vision suggests that there are often intermediate representations that are intrinsic to an inference task, and which provide essential structure to improve generalization. In this work, we explore an approach for injecting prior domain structure into neural network training by supervising hidden layers of a CNN with intermediate concepts that normally are not observed in practice. We formulate a probabilistic framework which formalizes these notions and predicts improved generalization via this deep supervision method. One advantage of this approach is that we are able to train only from synthetic CAD renderings of cluttered scenes, where concept values can be extracted, but apply the results to real images. Our implementation achieves the state-of-the-art performance of 2D/3D keypoint localization and image classification on real image benchmarks, including KITTI, PASCAL VOC, PASCAL3D+, IKEA, and CIFAR100. We provide additional evidence that our approach outperforms alternative forms of supervision, such as multi-task networks., Comment: Submitted to TPAMI, first revision. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:1612.02699

Monocular 3D object parsing is highly desirable in various scenarios including occlusion reasoning and holistic scene interpretation. We present a deep convolutional neural network (CNN) architecture to localize semantic parts in 2D image and 3D space while inferring their visibility states, given a single RGB image. Our key insight is to exploit domain knowledge to regularize the network by deeply supervising its hidden layers, in order to sequentially infer intermediate concepts associated with the final task. To acquire training data in desired quantities with ground truth 3D shape and relevant concepts, we render 3D object CAD models to generate large-scale synthetic data and simulate challenging occlusion configurations between objects. We train the network only on synthetic data and demonstrate state-of-the-art performances on real image benchmarks including an extended version of KITTI, PASCAL VOC, PASCAL3D+ and IKEA for 2D and 3D keypoint localization and instance segmentation. The empirical results substantiate the utility of our deep supervision scheme by demonstrating effective transfer of knowledge from synthetic data to real images, resulting in less overfitting compared to standard end-to-end training., Comment: Accepted in CVPR 2017