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Objective: To examine the short-term health effects of air pollution on daily mortality in four Australian cities (Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney), where more than 50% of Australians reside. Methods: The study used a similar protocol to APHEA2 (Air Pollution and Health: A European Approach) study and derived single-city and pooled estimates. Results: The results derived from the different approaches for the 1996-99 period showed consistent results for different statistical models used. There were significant effects on total mortality, (RR=1.0284 per 1 unit increase in nephelometry [10-4. m-1], RR=1.0011 per 1ppb increase in NO2), and on respiratory mortality (RR=1.0022 per 1ppb increase in O3). No significant differences between cities were found, but the NO2 and particle effects may refer to the same impacts. Meta-analyses carried out for three cities yielded estimates for the increase in the daily total number of deaths of 0.2% (-0.8% to 1.2%) for a 10 μg/m3 increase in PM10 concentration, and 0.9% (-0.7% to 2.5%) for a 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 concentration. Conclusions: Air pollutants in Australian cities have significant effects on mortality.

Background: This paper examines the short-term health effects of air pollution on daily hospital admissions in Australian cities (those considered comprise more than 50% of the Australian population) for the period 1996-99. Methods: The study used a similar protocol to overseas studies and derived single city and pooled estimates using different statistical approaches to assess the accuracy of the results. Results: There was little difference between the results derived from the different statistical approaches for cardiovascular admissions, while in those for respiratory admissions there were differences. For three of the four cities (for the other the results were positive but not significant), fine particles (measured by nephelometry - bsp) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) have a significant impact on cardiovascular admissions (for total cardiac admissions, RR=1.0856 for a one-unit increase in bsp (10-4.m-1 ), RR=1.0023 for a 1 ppb increase in NO2). For three of the four cities (for the other, the results were negative and significant), fine particles, NO2 and ozone have a significant impact on respiratory admissions (for total elderly respiratory admissions, RR=1.0552 per 1 unit (10-4.m-1) increase in bsp, RR=1.0027 per 1ppb increase in NO2, RR=10014 per 1 ppb increase in ozone for elderly asthma and COPD admissions). In all analyses the particle and NO2 impacts appear to be related. Conclusions: Similar to overseas studies, air pollution has an impact on hospital admissions in Australian cities, but there can be significant differences between cities.

Urban air pollution levels are associated with increased mortality and cardiorespiratory morbidity. These health effects occur even at exposure levels below those stipulated in current air-quality guidelines, and it is unclear whether a safe threshold exists. Air pollution in Australia and New Zealand comes primarily from motor vehicle emissions, electricity generation from fossil fuels, heavy industry, and home heating using wood and coal. In individual patients a direct link between symptoms and air pollution exposure may be difficult to establish and may not change their clinical management. However, avoiding exposure during periods of peak pollution may be beneficial. Although there is some evidence that urban air pollution in Australia and New Zealand has been decreasing (through reduced car use, improved emission-control technology and use of more energy-efficient devices in the household and in industry), pollution levels are still unsatisfactory. Further reductions may prevent hundreds of cardiorespiratory hospital admissions and deaths each year.

Full Text, Thesis (PhD Doctorate), Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Australian School of Environmental Studies, Science, Environment, Engineering and Technology, Urban health problems and visibility degradation problems are associated with particulate matter in the air, especially PM10 and PM25 (particles with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 j.tm and 2.5 jsm, respectively). The aim of this study was to investigate the characteristics and sources of PM25 and PM20 aerosols in Brisbane. This study collected aerosol samples over a period of two and a half years at five sites around Brisbane. Source samples of soil dusts, road-side dusts and sea salt were also collected and analysed to provide information on source emission composition. The aerosol samples were analysed by a wide range of techniques, including Ion Beam Analysis and Scanning Electron Microscopy, for their chemical composition and particle size distribution. Some methodologies have been specifically developed in this study. The results presented here show that the chemical composition of PM20 aerosols in Brisbane varies largely with particle size and locations. The chemical composition of the samples are generally related to the land use near the monitoring sites. On average, the major components in the PM10 aerosol samples at five sites in Brisbane were identified as: crustal matter (27% by mass), organic matter (16%), sea salt (12%), soot (11%), and ammonium sulphate (7%). Among the Australian studies, in general, the results show that the composition of the PM25 aerosol samples collected at the Griffith University site (Brisbane) is closest to those of the New South Wales samples. The samples from Melbourne and Perth are generally richer in industry-and vehicle-related species. The major components of the PM25 aerosols at the GU site were identified as: organic matter (27% by mass), elemental carbon (23%), ammonium sulphate (14%), sea salt (9%) and crustal matter (6%). The results show that contribution of emission sources also has large particle size, temporal and spatial variations. Based on the results of source apportionment from the chemical mass balance

Full Text, Thesis (PhD Doctorate), Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Graduate School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Science, Environment, Engineering and Technology, A fire service is an Emergency Response Organisation (ERO) an 'essential' service. Firefighters form part of the institutional safety net provided by government to protect people from harm and restore public safety following an emergency. In this role they are a key segment of both a regional and national emergency management infrastructure. Firefighting is a dangerous occupation. Occupational health and safety statistics for firefighters paint an alarming picture. Recent data on accidents within the Australian firefighting industry show injury rates at a level over twice that of the combined injury rate for all Australian industries. There is evidence of similar trends in injury data among a number of international fire services. The occupation offers the potential for a range of experiences that are in complete contrast to 'normality' of everyday life in that it is associated with emergent danger, uncertainty and unpredictability. Any of these factors may be seen as anathema to a stereotypically 'risk-averse' public. While the range and nature of hazards faced by firefighters is well established, little is known about their perception of the dangers in their work or the influence that these perceptions have on their occupational behaviour. This area of knowledge has been neglected in the occupational health & safety literature. This study aims to redress this absence by examining hazard and risk perception among a group of professional, urban firefighters in the Queensland Fire service (QFS). This study examines the 'social context' of work as a firefighter and generates understanding of the beliefs that they hold about the dangers of their occupation. By investigating and analysing material derived from the day-to-day experience of their work, the study goes beyond cognitive approaches to risk perception that generally incorporated little appreciation of the 'social settings' in which people experience danger in the real world. In doing this, the study applies me

Full Text, Thesis (PhD Doctorate), Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), School of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, The problem of filtration of liquid aerosols by both wettable and nonwettable filters has been extensively studied and the results of the theoretical calculations together with the experimental results are presented. More realistic models of filtration by both wettable and nonwettable filters have been developed and verified experimentally. A new instrument has been developed, and used in the experiments, for the measurement of the absolute concentration of aerosols in the gas stream. This instrument is based on the measurement of the initial vapour content of the gas stream simultaneously with the measurement of the vapour content after the total evaporation of aerosol. The concentration of the aerosol is calculated as the difference between these two values. The instrument was developed to provide fast and accurate measurements of aerosol concentration. The main advantages of the instrument are: high accuracy, simplicity of measurement, possibility of use for a wide range of substances, perfect suitability of operation for automatic monitoring technologies, etc. All rights for this instrument have been reserved and the fully automatic version will be available in the near future. It was found that the efficiency of filtration of aerosol on the wettable filter depends on the thickness of the liquid film on the fibre. This parameter was taken into account in the development of a theoretical model of filtration on wettable fibrous filters. The particle breakthrough problem has been solved by the optimisation of the aspect ratio (the ratio of the height by width) of the wettable filter. On this basis, industrial devices have been developed, patented, and implemented in industry. These devices provide a stable operating efficiency of higher than 99%. It was found experimentally that the efficiency of filtration of aerosol on the nonwettable filter depends on the diameter of the drop suspended on the filter, and on the area of the filter blocked by drops: this influence

In earlier cultures and societies, hazards and risks to human health were dealt with by methods derived from myth, metaphor and ritual. In modem society however, notions of hazard and risk have been transformed from the level of a folk discourse to that of an expert centred concept (Plough & Krimsky, 1987). With the professionalization of risk and hazard analysis came a preferred framework for decision making based on a range of 'technical' methodologies (Giere, 1991 ). This is especially true for decision processes relating to risk assessment and management, and impact assessment. Such approaches however, often entail narrow technical-based theoretical assumptions about human behaviour and the natural world, and the· methods used. They therefore carry 'in-built' error factors that contribute considerable uncertainty to the results.