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Hydraulic testing of isolated sapwood from mature tree trunks is time-consuming and prone to errors, whereas the measurement of compression strength is a standardized and rapid wood technological application. In this study, we aimed to analyze if compression stress perpendicular to the grain relates to hydraulic vulnerability of mature Norway spruce (Picea abies) trunk wood with an expected narrow vulnerability range. The sample-set comprised 52 specimens originating from 34 trees harvested in Sweden. Before mechanical testing, the P50, i.e., the water potential resulting in 50 % of hydraulic conductivity loss, was estimated on small sapwood beams employing the air injection method. Compression strength perpendicular to the grain was defined as the first peak of a stress-strain curve (peak stress) when the wood is subjected to radial compression. Peak stress ranged between 1,65 MPa and 5,07 MPa, P50 between -2,98 MPa and -1,98 MPa. We found a good correlation between the peak stress and P50 (r = 0,80; P < 0,0001). This provides further evidence that peak stress in radial compression and P50 are both extremely dependent on the characteristics of the “weakest” wood part, i.e., the highly conductive earlywood. We conclude that the radial compression strength is a good proxy for P50 of mature Norway spruce trunk wood., Las pruebas hidráulicas de albura aislada de troncos de árboles maduros requieren mucho tiempo y son propensas a errores, mientras que la medición de la resistencia a la compresión es una aplicación tecnológica de la madera estandarizada y rápida. En este estudio, nuestro objetivo fue analizar si la tensión de compresión perpendicular a la fibra se relaciona con la vulnerabilidad hidráulica de la madera madura del tronco de abeto rojo (Picea abies) con un rango de vulnerabilidad esperado estrecho. El conjunto de muestras estuvo compuesto por 52 especímenes procedentes de 34 árboles talados en Suecia. Antes de las pruebas mecánicas, el P50, es decir, el potencial hídrico que produce el 50 % de la pérdida de conductividad hidráulica, se estimó en pequeñas vigas de albura empleando el método de inyección de aire. La resistencia a la compresión perpendicular a la fibra se definió como el primer pico de una curva tensión-deformación (tensión máxima) cuando la madera se somete a compresión radial. La tensión máxima osciló entre 1,65 MPa y 5,07 MPa, P50 entre -2,98 MPa y -1,98 MPa. Encontramos una buena correlación entre el estrés máximo y P50 (r = 0,80; P < 0,0001). Esto proporciona evidencia adicional de que la tensión máxima en la compresión radial y P50 dependen en gran medida de las características de la parte de madera "más débil", es decir, la madera temprana altamente conductora. Concluimos que la resistencia a la compresión radial es un buen indicador del P50 de la madera madura de tronco de abeto de Noruega

Hydraulic testing of isolated sapwood from mature tree trunks is time-consuming and prone to errors, whereas the measurement of compression strength is a standardized and rapid wood technological application. In this study, we aimed to analyze if compression stress perpendicular to the grain relates to hydraulic vulnerability of mature Norway spruce (Picea abies) trunk wood with an expected narrow vulnerability range. The sample-set comprised 52 specimens originating from 34 trees harvested in Sweden. Before mechanical testing, the P50, i.e., the water potential resulting in 50 % of hydraulic conductivity loss, was estimated on small sapwood beams employing the air injection method. Compression strength perpendicular to the grain was defined as the first peak of a stress-strain curve (peak stress) when the wood is subjected to radial compression. Peak stress ranged between 1,65 MPa and 5,07 MPa, P50 between -2,98 MPa and -1,98 MPa. We found a good correlation between the peak stress and P50 (r = 0,80; P < 0,0001). This provides further evidence that peak stress in radial compression and P50 are both extremely dependent on the characteristics of the “weakest” wood part, i.e., the highly conductive earlywood. We conclude that the radial compression strength is a good proxy for P50 of mature Norway spruce trunk wood., Las pruebas hidráulicas de albura aislada de troncos de árboles maduros requieren mucho tiempo y son propensas a errores, mientras que la medición de la resistencia a la compresión es una aplicación tecnológica de la madera estandarizada y rápida. En este estudio, nuestro objetivo fue analizar si la tensión de compresión perpendicular a la fibra se relaciona con la vulnerabilidad hidráulica de la madera madura del tronco de abeto rojo (Picea abies) con un rango de vulnerabilidad esperado estrecho. El conjunto de muestras estuvo compuesto por 52 especímenes procedentes de 34 árboles talados en Suecia. Antes de las pruebas mecánicas, el P50, es decir, el potencial hídrico que produce el 50 % de la pérdida de conductividad hidráulica, se estimó en pequeñas vigas de albura empleando el método de inyección de aire. La resistencia a la compresión perpendicular a la fibra se definió como el primer pico de una curva tensión-deformación (tensión máxima) cuando la madera se somete a compresión radial. La tensión máxima osciló entre 1,65 MPa y 5,07 MPa, P50 entre -2,98 MPa y -1,98 MPa. Encontramos una buena correlación entre el estrés máximo y P50 (r = 0,80; P < 0,0001). Esto proporciona evidencia adicional de que la tensión máxima en la compresión radial y P50 dependen en gran medida de las características de la parte de madera "más débil", es decir, la madera temprana altamente conductora. Concluimos que la resistencia a la compresión radial es un buen indicador del P50 de la madera madura de tronco de abeto de Noruega

For manufacturers in the wood industry, an important way to make the production more effective is to automate the process of detecting defects and different attributes on boards. One important attribute on most boards is heartwood and sapwood. This thesis project was conducted at the company MiCROTEC and aims to investigate methods to classify heartwood and sapwood on boards. The dataset used in this project consisted of oak boards. In order to increase the amount of information retrieved from the boards, hyperspectral imaging was used instead of conventional RGB cameras. Based on this data, deep learning models in the form of U-Net and U-within-U-Net architecture as well as different spectral dimensionality reduction methods were developed to segment boards in heartwood and sapwood. The performance of these deep learning models was compared to PLS-DA and SVM. PLS-DA has already been used at MiCROTEC and has been used in this work for comparison as a baseline model. The result of the thesis work showed that a deep learning approach could increase the F1-Score from 0.730 for the baseline classifier PLS-DA to an F1-Score of 0.918, and that the different spectral reduction methods only had a small impact on the result. The increase in F1-score was mainly due to an increase in precision, since the PLS-DA had a similar recall as the deep learning models.

For manufacturers in the wood industry, an important way to make the production more effective is to automate the process of detecting defects and different attributes on boards. One important attribute on most boards is heartwood and sapwood. This thesis project was conducted at the company MiCROTEC and aims to investigate methods to classify heartwood and sapwood on boards. The dataset used in this project consisted of oak boards. In order to increase the amount of information retrieved from the boards, hyperspectral imaging was used instead of conventional RGB cameras. Based on this data, deep learning models in the form of U-Net and U-within-U-Net architecture as well as different spectral dimensionality reduction methods were developed to segment boards in heartwood and sapwood. The performance of these deep learning models was compared to PLS-DA and SVM. PLS-DA has already been used at MiCROTEC and has been used in this work for comparison as a baseline model. The result of the thesis work showed that a deep learning approach could increase the F1-Score from 0.730 for the baseline classifier PLS-DA to an F1-Score of 0.918, and that the different spectral reduction methods only had a small impact on the result. The increase in F1-score was mainly due to an increase in precision, since the PLS-DA had a similar recall as the deep learning models.

A single Norway spruce tree (Picea abies) was manually fractionated into heartwood, sapwood, juvenile wood and branches. These fractions were chemically pulped, individually, in laboratory scale. The pulps were characterized and investigated in relation to dewatering behavior and sheet strength properties. An unbleached and unbeaten commercial kraft pulp from softwood fibers was used as a reference, and the fractionated pulps were within the same range in all tested properties. The fractionated pulps were then compared with each other, and fiber characteristics were used to explain differences in dewatering and strength. Heartwood pulp results in stronger and stiffer papers that are harder to dewater. Sapwood pulp gives more open network structures resulting in easy dewatering and high air permeance, although with lower strength properties compared to heartwood. Pulp from Juvenile wood gives s quite strong but brittle sheets, with efficient dewatering. Pulp from branches gives paper sheets with efficient dewatering, air permeance and relatively high elongation of break but lower strength. The results show that there is definitely potential for utilizing more parts of the trees for pulp and paper making, especially when tailoring the raw material origins after preferred paper properties.

A single Norway spruce tree (Picea abies) was manually fractionated into heartwood, sapwood, juvenile wood and branches. These fractions were chemically pulped, individually, in laboratory scale. The pulps were characterized and investigated in relation to dewatering behavior and sheet strength properties. An unbleached and unbeaten commercial kraft pulp from softwood fibers was used as a reference, and the fractionated pulps were within the same range in all tested properties. The fractionated pulps were then compared with each other, and fiber characteristics were used to explain differences in dewatering and strength. Heartwood pulp results in stronger and stiffer papers that are harder to dewater. Sapwood pulp gives more open network structures resulting in easy dewatering and high air permeance, although with lower strength properties compared to heartwood. Pulp from Juvenile wood gives s quite strong but brittle sheets, with efficient dewatering. Pulp from branches gives paper sheets with efficient dewatering, air permeance and relatively high elongation of break but lower strength. The results show that there is definitely potential for utilizing more parts of the trees for pulp and paper making, especially when tailoring the raw material origins after preferred paper properties.

Estimates of tree heartwood and sapwood profiles are important in the pulp industry and for dynamic vegetation models, in which they determine tree biomechanical stability and hydraulic conductivity. Several phenomenological models of stem profiles have been developed for this purpose, based on assumptions on how tree crown and foliage distributions change over time. Here, we derive estimates of tree profiles by synthesizing a simple pipe model theory of plant form with a recently developed theory of branch thinning that from simple assumptions quantifies discarded branches and leaves. This allows us to develop a new trunk model of tree profiles from breast height up to the top of the tree. We postulate that leaves that are currently on the tree are connected by sapwood pipes, while pipes that previously connected discarded leaves or branches form the heartwood. By assuming that a fixed fraction of all pipes remain on the trunk after a branching event, as the trunk is traversed from the root system to the tips, this allows us to quantify trunk heartwood and sapwood profiles. We test the trunk model performance on empirical data from five tree species across three continents. We find that the trunk model accurately describes heartwood and sapwood profiles of all tested tree species (calibration; R2: 84-99%). Furthermore, once calibrated to a tree species, the trunk model predicts heartwood and sapwood profiles of conspecific trees in similar growing environments based only on the age and height of a tree (cross-validation/prediction; R2: 68-98%). The fewer and often contrasting parameters needed for the trunk model make it a potentially useful complementary tool for biologists and foresters.

Estimates of tree heartwood and sapwood profiles are important in the pulp industry and for dynamic vegetation models, in which they determine tree biomechanical stability and hydraulic conductivity. Several phenomenological models of stem profiles have been developed for this purpose, based on assumptions on how tree crown and foliage distributions change over time. Here, we derive estimates of tree profiles by synthesizing a simple pipe model theory of plant form with a recently developed theory of branch thinning that from simple assumptions quantifies discarded branches and leaves. This allows us to develop a new trunk model of tree profiles from breast height up to the top of the tree. We postulate that leaves that are currently on the tree are connected by sapwood pipes, while pipes that previously connected discarded leaves or branches form the heartwood. By assuming that a fixed fraction of all pipes remain on the trunk after a branching event, as the trunk is traversed from the root system to the tips, this allows us to quantify trunk heartwood and sapwood profiles. We test the trunk model performance on empirical data from five tree species across three continents. We find that the trunk model accurately describes heartwood and sapwood profiles of all tested tree species (calibration; R2: 84-99%). Furthermore, once calibrated to a tree species, the trunk model predicts heartwood and sapwood profiles of conspecific trees in similar growing environments based only on the age and height of a tree (cross-validation/prediction; R2: 68-98%). The fewer and often contrasting parameters needed for the trunk model make it a potentially useful complementary tool for biologists and foresters.

Estimates of tree heartwood and sapwood profiles are important in the pulp industry and for dynamic vegetation models, in which they determine tree biomechanical stability and hydraulic conductivity. Several phenomenological models of stem profiles have been developed for this purpose, based on assumptions on how tree crown and foliage distributions change over time. Here, we derive estimates of tree profiles by synthesizing a simple pipe model theory of plant form with a recently developed theory of branch thinning that from simple assumptions quantifies discarded branches and leaves. This allows us to develop a new trunk model of tree profiles from breast height up to the top of the tree. We postulate that leaves that are currently on the tree are connected by sapwood pipes, while pipes that previously connected discarded leaves or branches form the heartwood. By assuming that a fixed fraction of all pipes remain on the trunk after a branching event, as the trunk is traversed from the root system to the tips, this allows us to quantify trunk heartwood and sapwood profiles. We test the trunk model performance on empirical data from five tree species across three continents. We find that the trunk model accurately describes heartwood and sapwood profiles of all tested tree species (calibration; R2: 84-99%). Furthermore, once calibrated to a tree species, the trunk model predicts heartwood and sapwood profiles of conspecific trees in similar growing environments based only on the age and height of a tree (cross-validation/prediction; R2: 68-98%). The fewer and often contrasting parameters needed for the trunk model make it a potentially useful complementary tool for biologists and foresters.

A single Norway spruce tree (Picea abies) was manually fractionated into heartwood, sapwood, juvenile wood and branches. These fractions were chemically pulped, individually, in laboratory scale. The pulps were characterized and investigated in relation to dewatering behavior and sheet strength properties. An unbleached and unbeaten commercial kraft pulp from softwood fibers was used as a reference, and the fractionated pulps were within the same range in all tested properties. The fractionated pulps were then compared with each other, and fiber characteristics were used to explain differences in dewatering and strength. Heartwood pulp results in stronger and stiffer papers that are harder to dewater. Sapwood pulp gives more open network structures resulting in easy dewatering and high air permeance, although with lower strength properties compared to heartwood. Pulp from Juvenile wood gives s quite strong but brittle sheets, with efficient dewatering. Pulp from branches gives paper sheets with efficient dewatering, air permeance and relatively high elongation of break but lower strength. The results show that there is definitely potential for utilizing more parts of the trees for pulp and paper making, especially when tailoring the raw material origins after preferred paper properties., QC 20230613

Estimates of tree heartwood and sapwood profiles are important in the pulp industry and for dynamic vegetation models, in which they determine tree biomechanical stability and hydraulic conductivity. Several phenomenological models of stem profiles have been developed for this purpose, based on assumptions on how tree crown and foliage distributions change over time. Here, we derive estimates of tree profiles by synthesizing a simple pipe model theory of plant form with a recently developed theory of branch thinning that from simple assumptions quantifies discarded branches and leaves. This allows us to develop a new trunk model of tree profiles from breast height up to the top of the tree. We postulate that leaves that are currently on the tree are connected by sapwood pipes, while pipes that previously connected discarded leaves or branches form the heartwood. By assuming that a fixed fraction of all pipes remain on the trunk after a branching event, as the trunk is traversed from the root system to the tips, this allows us to quantify trunk heartwood and sapwood profiles. We test the trunk model performance on empirical data from five tree species across three continents. We find that the trunk model accurately describes heartwood and sapwood profiles of all tested tree species (calibration; R2: 84-99%). Furthermore, once calibrated to a tree species, the trunk model predicts heartwood and sapwood profiles of conspecific trees in similar growing environments based only on the age and height of a tree (cross-validation/prediction; R2: 68-98%). The fewer and often contrasting parameters needed for the trunk model make it a potentially useful complementary tool for biologists and foresters.

A single Norway spruce tree (Picea abies) was manually fractionated into heartwood, sapwood, juvenile wood and branches. These fractions were chemically pulped, individually, in laboratory scale. The pulps were characterized and investigated in relation to dewatering behavior and sheet strength properties. An unbleached and unbeaten commercial kraft pulp from softwood fibers was used as a reference, and the fractionated pulps were within the same range in all tested properties. The fractionated pulps were then compared with each other, and fiber characteristics were used to explain differences in dewatering and strength. Heartwood pulp results in stronger and stiffer papers that are harder to dewater. Sapwood pulp gives more open network structures resulting in easy dewatering and high air permeance, although with lower strength properties compared to heartwood. Pulp from Juvenile wood gives s quite strong but brittle sheets, with efficient dewatering. Pulp from branches gives paper sheets with efficient dewatering, air permeance and relatively high elongation of break but lower strength. The results show that there is definitely potential for utilizing more parts of the trees for pulp and paper making, especially when tailoring the raw material origins after preferred paper properties.

Estimates of tree heartwood and sapwood profiles are important in the pulp industry and for dynamic vegetation models, in which they determine tree biomechanical stability and hydraulic conductivity. Several phenomenological models of stem profiles have been developed for this purpose, based on assumptions on how tree crown and foliage distributions change over time. Here, we derive estimates of tree profiles by synthesizing a simple pipe model theory of plant form with a recently developed theory of branch thinning that from simple assumptions quantifies discarded branches and leaves. This allows us to develop a new trunk model of tree profiles from breast height up to the top of the tree. We postulate that leaves that are currently on the tree are connected by sapwood pipes, while pipes that previously connected discarded leaves or branches form the heartwood. By assuming that a fixed fraction of all pipes remain on the trunk after a branching event, as the trunk is traversed from the root system to the tips, this allows us to quantify trunk heartwood and sapwood profiles. We test the trunk model performance on empirical data from five tree species across three continents. We find that the trunk model accurately describes heartwood and sapwood profiles of all tested tree species (calibration; R-2: 84-99%). Furthermore, once calibrated to a tree species, the trunk model predicts heartwood and sapwood profiles of conspecific trees in similar growing environments based only on the age and height of a tree (cross-validation/prediction; R-2: 68-98%). The fewer and often contrasting parameters needed for the trunk model make it a potentially useful complementary tool for biologists and foresters.

A single Norway spruce tree (Picea abies) was manually fractionated into heartwood, sapwood, juvenile wood and branches. These fractions were chemically pulped, individually, in laboratory scale. The pulps were characterized and investigated in relation to dewatering behavior and sheet strength properties. An unbleached and unbeaten commercial kraft pulp from softwood fibers was used as a reference, and the fractionated pulps were within the same range in all tested properties. The fractionated pulps were then compared with each other, and fiber characteristics were used to explain differences in dewatering and strength. Heartwood pulp results in stronger and stiffer papers that are harder to dewater. Sapwood pulp gives more open network structures resulting in easy dewatering and high air permeance, although with lower strength properties compared to heartwood. Pulp from Juvenile wood gives s quite strong but brittle sheets, with efficient dewatering. Pulp from branches gives paper sheets with efficient dewatering, air permeance and relatively high elongation of break but lower strength. The results show that there is definitely potential for utilizing more parts of the trees for pulp and paper making, especially when tailoring the raw material origins after preferred paper properties.

A single Norway spruce tree (Picea abies) was manually fractionated into heartwood, sapwood, juvenile wood and branches. These fractions were chemically pulped, individually, in laboratory scale. The pulps were characterized and investigated in relation to dewatering behavior and sheet strength properties. An unbleached and unbeaten commercial kraft pulp from softwood fibers was used as a reference, and the fractionated pulps were within the same range in all tested properties. The fractionated pulps were then compared with each other, and fiber characteristics were used to explain differences in dewatering and strength. Heartwood pulp results in stronger and stiffer papers that are harder to dewater. Sapwood pulp gives more open network structures resulting in easy dewatering and high air permeance, although with lower strength properties compared to heartwood. Pulp from Juvenile wood gives s quite strong but brittle sheets, with efficient dewatering. Pulp from branches gives paper sheets with efficient dewatering, air permeance and relatively high elongation of break but lower strength. The results show that there is definitely potential for utilizing more parts of the trees for pulp and paper making, especially when tailoring the raw material origins after preferred paper properties.

Estimates of tree heartwood and sapwood profiles are important in the pulp industry and for dynamic vegetation models, in which they determine tree biomechanical stability and hydraulic conductivity. Several phenomenological models of stem profiles have been developed for this purpose, based on assumptions on how tree crown and foliage distributions change over time. Here, we derive estimates of tree profiles by synthesizing a simple pipe model theory of plant form with a recently developed theory of branch thinning that from simple assumptions quantifies discarded branches and leaves. This allows us to develop a new trunk model of tree profiles from breast height up to the top of the tree. We postulate that leaves that are currently on the tree are connected by sapwood pipes, while pipes that previously connected discarded leaves or branches form the heartwood. By assuming that a fixed fraction of all pipes remain on the trunk after a branching event, as the trunk is traversed from the root system to the tips, this allows us to quantify trunk heartwood and sapwood profiles. We test the trunk model performance on empirical data from five tree species across three continents. We find that the trunk model accurately describes heartwood and sapwood profiles of all tested tree species (calibration; R2: 84-99%). Furthermore, once calibrated to a tree species, the trunk model predicts heartwood and sapwood profiles of conspecific trees in similar growing environments based only on the age and height of a tree (cross-validation/prediction; R2: 68-98%). The fewer and often contrasting parameters needed for the trunk model make it a potentially useful complementary tool for biologists and foresters.

Pathogenic diseases frequently occur in drought-stressed trees. However, their contribution to the process of drought-induced mortality is poorly understood. We combined drought and stem inoculation treatments to study the physiological processes leading to drought-induced mortality in Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) saplings infected with Heterobasidion annosum s.s. We analysed the saplings' water status, gas exchange, nonstructural carbohydrates (NSCs) and defence responses, and how they related to mortality. Saplings were followed for two growing seasons, including an artificially induced 3-month dormancy period. The combined drought and pathogen treatment significantly increased spruce mortality; however, no interaction between these stressors was observed in pine, although individually each stressor caused mortality. Our results suggest that pathogen infection decreased carbon reserves in spruce, reducing the capacity of saplings to cope with drought, resulting in increased mortality rates. Defoliation, relative water content and the starch concentration of needles were predictors of mortality in both species under drought and pathogen infection. Infection and drought stress create conflicting needs for carbon to compartmentalize the pathogen and to avoid turgor loss, respectively. Heterobasidion annosum reduces the functional sapwood area and shifts NSC allocation patterns, reducing the capacity of trees to cope with drought.

ISBN för värdpublikation: 978-952-94-4383-3

ISBN för värdpublikation: 978-952-94-4383-3

This study investigated the morphological characteristics and chemical properties of the wood and the chemical properties of the bark of the oleaster ( Elaeagnus angustifolia) tree, which grows in a variety of climatic conditions in different regions of Turkey. The study materials were taken from three different regions of Turkey having different climatic conditions and elevations with the aim to determine the chemical properties of the bark and wood and the fiber properties of the wood. According to chemical analyses, no significant differences in the core components of the cell wall were observed between the heartwood and the sapwood. The samples collected from the Çankiri region had the highest holocellulose content (84,9%), while the proportions of alpha cellulose (52,3%) and lignin (24,0%) in samples taken from the Balikesir region were found to be higher than in samples from the other regions. According to the sugar analysis, glucose and xylose were found to be higher in the heartwood than in the sapwood. When the sugar ratios were evaluated by region, the glucose and xylose ratios were the highest in the Çankiri region (43,7% and 22,8%) and the lowest in the Konya region (38,3% and 20,5%). When looking at the inner bark (phloem) and outer bark (rhylidome) rates, the amounts of holocellulose and alpha cellulose were higher in the inner bark and the lignin rates were higher in the outer bark. The wood solubility values for cold and hot water, ethyl alcohol and the 1% NaOH were highest in samples from the Çankiri region and lowest in those from the Konya region, whereas bark solubility rates were highest in the samples taken from the Balikesir region. When morphological characteristics were examined, no obvious differences were seen among the regions in terms of the fiber length, fiber width, lumen diameter or double wall thickness. Upon further investigation, it was determined that the oleaster tree wood was suitable for papermaking, but that the produced paper

This study investigated the morphological characteristics and chemical properties of the wood and the chemical properties of the bark of the oleaster ( Elaeagnus angustifolia) tree, which grows in a variety of climatic conditions in different regions of Turkey. The study materials were taken from three different regions of Turkey having different climatic conditions and elevations with the aim to determine the chemical properties of the bark and wood and the fiber properties of the wood. According to chemical analyses, no significant differences in the core components of the cell wall were observed between the heartwood and the sapwood. The samples collected from the Çankiri region had the highest holocellulose content (84,9%), while the proportions of alpha cellulose (52,3%) and lignin (24,0%) in samples taken from the Balikesir region were found to be higher than in samples from the other regions. According to the sugar analysis, glucose and xylose were found to be higher in the heartwood than in the sapwood. When the sugar ratios were evaluated by region, the glucose and xylose ratios were the highest in the Çankiri region (43,7% and 22,8%) and the lowest in the Konya region (38,3% and 20,5%). When looking at the inner bark (phloem) and outer bark (rhylidome) rates, the amounts of holocellulose and alpha cellulose were higher in the inner bark and the lignin rates were higher in the outer bark. The wood solubility values for cold and hot water, ethyl alcohol and the 1% NaOH were highest in samples from the Çankiri region and lowest in those from the Konya region, whereas bark solubility rates were highest in the samples taken from the Balikesir region. When morphological characteristics were examined, no obvious differences were seen among the regions in terms of the fiber length, fiber width, lumen diameter or double wall thickness. Upon further investigation, it was determined that the oleaster tree wood was suitable for papermaking, but that the produced paper

This study investigated the morphological characteristics and chemical properties of the wood and the chemical properties of the bark of the oleaster ( Elaeagnus angustifolia) tree, which grows in a variety of climatic conditions in different regions of Turkey. The study materials were taken from three different regions of Turkey having different climatic conditions and elevations with the aim to determine the chemical properties of the bark and wood and the fiber properties of the wood. According to chemical analyses, no significant differences in the core components of the cell wall were observed between the heartwood and the sapwood. The samples collected from the Çankiri region had the highest holocellulose content (84,9%), while the proportions of alpha cellulose (52,3%) and lignin (24,0%) in samples taken from the Balikesir region were found to be higher than in samples from the other regions. According to the sugar analysis, glucose and xylose were found to be higher in the heartwood than in the sapwood. When the sugar ratios were evaluated by region, the glucose and xylose ratios were the highest in the Çankiri region (43,7% and 22,8%) and the lowest in the Konya region (38,3% and 20,5%). When looking at the inner bark (phloem) and outer bark (rhylidome) rates, the amounts of holocellulose and alpha cellulose were higher in the inner bark and the lignin rates were higher in the outer bark. The wood solubility values for cold and hot water, ethyl alcohol and the 1% NaOH were highest in samples from the Çankiri region and lowest in those from the Konya region, whereas bark solubility rates were highest in the samples taken from the Balikesir region. When morphological characteristics were examined, no obvious differences were seen among the regions in terms of the fiber length, fiber width, lumen diameter or double wall thickness. Upon further investigation, it was determined that the oleaster tree wood was suitable for papermaking, but that the produced paper

This study investigated the morphological characteristics and chemical properties of the wood and the chemical properties of the bark of the oleaster ( Elaeagnus angustifolia) tree, which grows in a variety of climatic conditions in different regions of Turkey. The study materials were taken from three different regions of Turkey having different climatic conditions and elevations with the aim to determine the chemical properties of the bark and wood and the fiber properties of the wood. According to chemical analyses, no significant differences in the core components of the cell wall were observed between the heartwood and the sapwood. The samples collected from the Çankiri region had the highest holocellulose content (84,9%), while the proportions of alpha cellulose (52,3%) and lignin (24,0%) in samples taken from the Balikesir region were found to be higher than in samples from the other regions. According to the sugar analysis, glucose and xylose were found to be higher in the heartwood than in the sapwood. When the sugar ratios were evaluated by region, the glucose and xylose ratios were the highest in the Çankiri region (43,7% and 22,8%) and the lowest in the Konya region (38,3% and 20,5%). When looking at the inner bark (phloem) and outer bark (rhylidome) rates, the amounts of holocellulose and alpha cellulose were higher in the inner bark and the lignin rates were higher in the outer bark. The wood solubility values for cold and hot water, ethyl alcohol and the 1% NaOH were highest in samples from the Çankiri region and lowest in those from the Konya region, whereas bark solubility rates were highest in the samples taken from the Balikesir region. When morphological characteristics were examined, no obvious differences were seen among the regions in terms of the fiber length, fiber width, lumen diameter or double wall thickness. Upon further investigation, it was determined that the oleaster tree wood was suitable for papermaking, but that the produced paper

Wood used outdoors is often degraded and discoloured by microorganisms as a natural part of its life cycle, particularly when exposed to high levels of moisture for prolonged times. In this case, the application of a coating (i.e. paint) is an option for increasing the service life of the wood. Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) is commonly used for outdoor applications in Sweden. Earlier studies have shown that uncoated spruce heartwood is less prone to moisture sorption in outdoor exposure, resulting in lower moisture content (MC) levels, as compared to sapwood. However, studies related to the above mentioned characteristics are rather limited for coated spruce, especially including the influence of outdoor exposure (i.e. weathering). The aim of this thesis is, therefore, to increase the knowledge of how heartwood and sapwood of different densities influence on the durability of coated Norway spruce for outdoor use. Different types of coatings with alkyd-, acrylic-, flour- (calcimine paint), or linseed-oil-based resin were included. The objectives were to study the water sorption (including MC variation) behaviour and crack formation of uncoated and coated heartwood and sapwood of different densities. Furthermore was an objective to study the microbial growth on the surface of similar samples of coated spruce in outdoor exposure. The used methods included wetting and liquid permeability experiments, accelerated water absorption (with samples floating freely in water), and outdoor field test. The field method lasted between three to five years and involved monitoring of the MC variation, the crack formation and the microbial growth on the samples. The results based on wetting measurements using octane as the adsorbed liquid showed no difference in liquid permeability between the spruce heartwood and sapwood samples of comparable densities, and indicated a similar level of pit aspiration (closure). The common flow path between two cells of conifers occurs throu

Wood used outdoors is often degraded and discoloured by microorganisms as a natural part of its life cycle, particularly when exposed to high levels of moisture for prolonged times. In this case, the application of a coating (i.e. paint) is an option for increasing the service life of the wood. Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) is commonly used for outdoor applications in Sweden. Earlier studies have shown that uncoated spruce heartwood is less prone to moisture sorption in outdoor exposure, resulting in lower moisture content (MC) levels, as compared to sapwood. However, studies related to the above mentioned characteristics are rather limited for coated spruce, especially including the influence of outdoor exposure (i.e. weathering). The aim of this thesis is, therefore, to increase the knowledge of how heartwood and sapwood of different densities influence on the durability of coated Norway spruce for outdoor use. Different types of coatings with alkyd-, acrylic-, flour- (calcimine paint), or linseed-oil-based resin were included. The objectives were to study the water sorption (including MC variation) behaviour and crack formation of uncoated and coated heartwood and sapwood of different densities. Furthermore was an objective to study the microbial growth on the surface of similar samples of coated spruce in outdoor exposure. The used methods included wetting and liquid permeability experiments, accelerated water absorption (with samples floating freely in water), and outdoor field test. The field method lasted between three to five years and involved monitoring of the MC variation, the crack formation and the microbial growth on the samples. The results based on wetting measurements using octane as the adsorbed liquid showed no difference in liquid permeability between the spruce heartwood and sapwood samples of comparable densities, and indicated a similar level of pit aspiration (closure). The common flow path between two cells of conifers occurs throu

Wood used outdoors is often degraded and discoloured by microorganisms as a natural part of its life cycle, particularly when exposed to high levels of moisture for prolonged times. In this case, the application of a coating (i.e. paint) is an option for increasing the service life of the wood. Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) is commonly used for outdoor applications in Sweden. Earlier studies have shown that uncoated spruce heartwood is less prone to moisture sorption in outdoor exposure, resulting in lower moisture content (MC) levels, as compared to sapwood. However, studies related to the above mentioned characteristics are rather limited for coated spruce, especially including the influence of outdoor exposure (i.e. weathering). The aim of this thesis is, therefore, to increase the knowledge of how heartwood and sapwood of different densities influence on the durability of coated Norway spruce for outdoor use. Different types of coatings with alkyd-, acrylic-, flour- (calcimine paint), or linseed-oil-based resin were included. The objectives were to study the water sorption (including MC variation) behaviour and crack formation of uncoated and coated heartwood and sapwood of different densities. Furthermore was an objective to study the microbial growth on the surface of similar samples of coated spruce in outdoor exposure. The used methods included wetting and liquid permeability experiments, accelerated water absorption (with samples floating freely in water), and outdoor field test. The field method lasted between three to five years and involved monitoring of the MC variation, the crack formation and the microbial growth on the samples. The results based on wetting measurements using octane as the adsorbed liquid showed no difference in liquid permeability between the spruce heartwood and sapwood samples of comparable densities, and indicated a similar level of pit aspiration (closure). The common flow path between two cells of conifers occurs throu

Wood used outdoors is often degraded and discoloured by microorganisms as a natural part of its life cycle, particularly when exposed to high levels of moisture for prolonged times. In this case, the application of a coating (i.e. paint) is an option for increasing the service life of the wood. Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) is commonly used for outdoor applications in Sweden. Earlier studies have shown that uncoated spruce heartwood is less prone to moisture sorption in outdoor exposure, resulting in lower moisture content (MC) levels, as compared to sapwood. However, studies related to the above mentioned characteristics are rather limited for coated spruce, especially including the influence of outdoor exposure (i.e. weathering). The aim of this thesis is, therefore, to increase the knowledge of how heartwood and sapwood of different densities influence on the durability of coated Norway spruce for outdoor use. Different types of coatings with alkyd-, acrylic-, flour- (calcimine paint), or linseed-oil-based resin were included. The objectives were to study the water sorption (including MC variation) behaviour and crack formation of uncoated and coated heartwood and sapwood of different densities. Furthermore was an objective to study the microbial growth on the surface of similar samples of coated spruce in outdoor exposure. The used methods included wetting and liquid permeability experiments, accelerated water absorption (with samples floating freely in water), and outdoor field test. The field method lasted between three to five years and involved monitoring of the MC variation, the crack formation and the microbial growth on the samples. The results based on wetting measurements using octane as the adsorbed liquid showed no difference in liquid permeability between the spruce heartwood and sapwood samples of comparable densities, and indicated a similar level of pit aspiration (closure). The common flow path between two cells of conifers occurs throu

Wood used outdoors is often degraded and discoloured by microorganisms as a natural part of its life cycle, particularly when exposed to high levels of moisture for prolonged times. In this case, the application of a coating (i.e. paint) is an option for increasing the service life of the wood. Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) is commonly used for outdoor applications in Sweden. Earlier studies have shown that uncoated spruce heartwood is less prone to moisture sorption in outdoor exposure, resulting in lower moisture content (MC) levels, as compared to sapwood. However, studies related to the above mentioned characteristics are rather limited for coated spruce, especially including the influence of outdoor exposure (i.e. weathering). The aim of this thesis is, therefore, to increase the knowledge of how heartwood and sapwood of different densities influence on the durability of coated Norway spruce for outdoor use. Different types of coatings with alkyd-, acrylic-, flour- (calcimine paint), or linseed-oil-based resin were included. The objectives were to study the water sorption (including MC variation) behaviour and crack formation of uncoated and coated heartwood and sapwood of different densities. Furthermore was an objective to study the microbial growth on the surface of similar samples of coated spruce in outdoor exposure. The used methods included wetting and liquid permeability experiments, accelerated water absorption (with samples floating freely in water), and outdoor field test. The field method lasted between three to five years and involved monitoring of the MC variation, the crack formation and the microbial growth on the samples. The results based on wetting measurements using octane as the adsorbed liquid showed no difference in liquid permeability between the spruce heartwood and sapwood samples of comparable densities, and indicated a similar level of pit aspiration (closure). The common flow path between two cells of conifers occurs throu

Trees scale leaf (AL) and xylem (AX) areas to couple leaf transpiration and carbon gain with xylem water transport. Some species are known to acclimate in AL: AX balance in response to climate conditions, but whether trees of different species acclimate in AL: AX in similar ways over their entire (continental) distributions is unknown. We analyzed the species and climate effects on the scaling of AL vs AX in branches of conifers (Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies) and broadleaved (Betula pendula, Populus tremula) sampled across a continental wide transect in Europe. Along the branch axis, AL and AX change in equal proportion (isometric scaling: b ˜ 1) as for trees. Branches of similar length converged in the scaling of AL vs AX with an exponent of b = 0.58 across European climates irrespective of species. Branches of slow-growing trees from Northern and Southern regions preferentially allocated into new leaf rather than xylem area, with older xylem rings contributing to maintaining total xylem conductivity. In conclusion, trees in contrasting climates adjust their functional balance between water transport and leaf transpiration by maintaining biomass allocation to leaves, and adjusting their growth rate and xylem production to maintain xylem conductance.

Influence of extractives on mould growth on Scots pine sapwood dried in air or in kiln was studied. Boards were sprayed with water mixtures of spores of the fungal species Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp., Mucor sp., Paecilomyces sp., Trichoderma sp., treated at a temperature of 22ºC at 90% RH, classified into a percentage of covered area. Acetone and water extracts were isolated and analyzed for sugars, nitrogen, ash, resin/fatty acids, glycerol, and phenols. A multivariate Orthogonal Partial Least Squares (OPLS) regression model was developed to study relations between the extent of mould coverage of boards and chemical content. The model describes 51% variability in X and 69% in Y with prediction power of 55%. The results indicated that total acetone soluble extractives and sugars like glucose contributed to increased mould growth whereas fatty acids prevent mould growth.

Aims of study: To characterize the wood of Acacia melanoxylon in relation to its potential use in the construction and furniture industry, here we determined the heartwood and sapwood content and distribution within the stem and analyzed their relationship with the growing site, age and growth rate of the trees. Finally, we predicted heartwood content by two easy-to-measure variables.Area of study: Buenos Aires, Argentina.Methods: 20 trees aged between 9 and 32 years were sampled in four sites. Axial sampling was carried out at four heights of the stem (base, breast height, and 30% and 50% of the total height), and the heartwood content (percentage and volume) and sapwood content (cm) determined.Results: The trees analyzed presented conical-shaped heartwood following the outline of the stem along all its commercial height. Within the stem, the highest volume of heartwood was observed at the basal region (53%) and up to 30% of total height, a feature observed in all the sites studied. The sapwood content was constant along the entire stem (2.18 cm). The age of the trees did not influence the heartwood content, whereas the environmental conditions provided by each site (heartwood/volume and heartwood/diameter growth positive ratios) did affect this feature.Research highlights: The absolute amount of heartwood was driven by growth rate, due to the forest structure of non-uniform age. The heartwood volume can be estimated through fitting linear equations (R2 0.78 - 0.89) with two easily measurable variables such as diameter at breast height and tree height.

Aims of study: To characterize the wood of Acacia melanoxylon in relation to its potential use in the construction and furniture industry, here we determined the heartwood and sapwood content and distribution within the stem and analyzed their relationship with the growing site, age and growth rate of the trees. Finally, we predicted heartwood content by two easy-to-measure variables.Area of study: Buenos Aires, Argentina.Methods: 20 trees aged between 9 and 32 years were sampled in four sites. Axial sampling was carried out at four heights of the stem (base, breast height, and 30% and 50% of the total height), and the heartwood content (percentage and volume) and sapwood content (cm) determined.Results: The trees analyzed presented conical-shaped heartwood following the outline of the stem along all its commercial height. Within the stem, the highest volume of heartwood was observed at the basal region (53%) and up to 30% of total height, a feature observed in all the sites studied. The sapwood content was constant along the entire stem (2.18 cm). The age of the trees did not influence the heartwood content, whereas the environmental conditions provided by each site (heartwood/volume and heartwood/diameter growth positive ratios) did affect this feature.Research highlights: The absolute amount of heartwood was driven by growth rate, due to the forest structure of non-uniform age. The heartwood volume can be estimated through fitting linear equations (R2 0.78 - 0.89) with two easily measurable variables such as diameter at breast height and tree height.

Influence of extractives on mould growth on Scots pine sapwood dried in air or in kiln was studied. Boards were sprayed with water mixtures of spores of the fungal species Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp., Mucor sp., Paecilomyces sp., Trichoderma sp., treated at a temperature of 22ºC at 90% RH, classified into a percentage of covered area. Acetone and water extracts were isolated and analyzed for sugars, nitrogen, ash, resin/fatty acids, glycerol, and phenols. A multivariate Orthogonal Partial Least Squares (OPLS) regression model was developed to study relations between the extent of mould coverage of boards and chemical content. The model describes 51% variability in X and 69% in Y with prediction power of 55%. The results indicated that total acetone soluble extractives and sugars like glucose contributed to increased mould growth whereas fatty acids prevent mould growth.

Wood material has advantages, it comes from a renewable source and it is easy to manage. But one disadvantage when used outdoors is biological discoloration of the material. Some impact on the discoloration is the presence of moisture and nutrients, necessary components for the microorganisms to grow and start a colonisation. Samples made of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) heartwood or sapwood coated with two different film forming paints was studied. The paints had a binder formula made of alkyd or acrylate. Additional parameters related to study the influence of moisture content on discoloration were high and low density material, with and without impregnation oil. Outdoor exposure was made during five years in the southern part of Sweden. The samples were hung with 45 degree inclination, facing south direction. Visual differences in biological surface discoloration were observed for samples within the same paint, which could be explained by differences in heartwood and sapwood.

A field test of coated spruce was exposed outdoors during three years, measuring the influence of wood characteristics on the variation of moisture content in coated panels. Wood samples had following characteristics: fast-grown or slow-grown wood, heartwood or sapwood. Three different film-forming coatings were tested and all samples were exposed above ground on racks. The measured moisture contents were evaluated using the statistical method Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The moisture content of the coated samples was clearly influenced by wood characteristics; fast-grown wood had higher moisture content and higher moisture fluctuation than slow-grown wood in each respective coating system. The choice of coating system also affects the wood moisture content. The result indicates that in order to achieve low moisture content- excluding the effectiveness of coatings, wood characteristics should also be considered., The Bridge

Wood material has advantages, it comes from a renewable source and it is easy to manage. But one disadvantage when used outdoors is biological discoloration of the material. Some impact on the discoloration is the presence of moisture and nutrients, necessary components for the microorganisms to grow and start a colonisation. Samples made of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) heartwood or sapwood coated with two different film forming paints was studied. The paints had a binder formula made of alkyd or acrylate. Additional parameters related to study the influence of moisture content on discoloration were high and low density material, with and without impregnation oil. Outdoor exposure was made during five years in the southern part of Sweden. The samples were hung with 45 degree inclination, facing south direction. Visual differences in biological surface discoloration were observed for samples within the same paint, which could be explained by differences in heartwood and sapwood.

A field test of coated spruce was exposed outdoors during three years, measuring the influence of wood characteristics on the variation of moisture content in coated panels. Wood samples had following characteristics: fast-grown or slow-grown wood, heartwood or sapwood. Three different film-forming coatings were tested and all samples were exposed above ground on racks. The measured moisture contents were evaluated using the statistical method Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The moisture content of the coated samples was clearly influenced by wood characteristics; fast-grown wood had higher moisture content and higher moisture fluctuation than slow-grown wood in each respective coating system. The choice of coating system also affects the wood moisture content. The result indicates that in order to achieve low moisture content- excluding the effectiveness of coatings, wood characteristics should also be considered., The Bridge

A field test of coated spruce was exposed outdoors during three years, measuring the influence of wood characteristics on the variation of moisture content in coated panels. Wood samples had following characteristics: fast-grown or slow-grown wood, heartwood or sapwood. Three different film-forming coatings were tested and all samples were exposed above ground on racks. The measured moisture contents were evaluated using the statistical method Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The moisture content of the coated samples was clearly influenced by wood characteristics; fast-grown wood had higher moisture content and higher moisture fluctuation than slow-grown wood in each respective coating system. The choice of coating system also affects the wood moisture content. The result indicates that in order to achieve low moisture content- excluding the effectiveness of coatings, wood characteristics should also be considered., The Bridge

Wood material has advantages, it comes from a renewable source and it is easy to manage. But one disadvantage when used outdoors is biological discoloration of the material. Some impact on the discoloration is the presence of moisture and nutrients, necessary components for the microorganisms to grow and start a colonisation. Samples made of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) heartwood or sapwood coated with two different film forming paints was studied. The paints had a binder formula made of alkyd or acrylate. Additional parameters related to study the influence of moisture content on discoloration were high and low density material, with and without impregnation oil. Outdoor exposure was made during five years in the southern part of Sweden. The samples were hung with 45 degree inclination, facing south direction. Visual differences in biological surface discoloration were observed for samples within the same paint, which could be explained by differences in heartwood and sapwood.

A field test of coated spruce was exposed outdoors during three years, measuring the influence of wood characteristics on the variation of moisture content in coated panels. Wood samples had following characteristics: fast-grown or slow-grown wood, heartwood or sapwood. Three different film-forming coatings were tested and all samples were exposed above ground on racks. The measured moisture contents were evaluated using the statistical method Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The moisture content of the coated samples was clearly influenced by wood characteristics; fast-grown wood had higher moisture content and higher moisture fluctuation than slow-grown wood in each respective coating system. The choice of coating system also affects the wood moisture content. The result indicates that in order to achieve low moisture content- excluding the effectiveness of coatings, wood characteristics should also be considered., The Bridge

Wood material has advantages, it comes from a renewable source and it is easy to manage. But one disadvantage when used outdoors is biological discoloration of the material. Some impact on the discoloration is the presence of moisture and nutrients, necessary components for the microorganisms to grow and start a colonisation. Samples made of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) heartwood or sapwood coated with two different film forming paints was studied. The paints had a binder formula made of alkyd or acrylate. Additional parameters related to study the influence of moisture content on discoloration were high and low density material, with and without impregnation oil. Outdoor exposure was made during five years in the southern part of Sweden. The samples were hung with 45 degree inclination, facing south direction. Visual differences in biological surface discoloration were observed for samples within the same paint, which could be explained by differences in heartwood and sapwood.

A field test of coated spruce was exposed outdoors during three years, measuring the influence of wood characteristics on the variation of moisture content in coated panels. Wood samples had following characteristics: fast-grown or slow-grown wood, heartwood or sapwood. Three different film-forming coatings were tested and all samples were exposed above ground on racks. The measured moisture contents were evaluated using the statistical method Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The moisture content of the coated samples was clearly influenced by wood characteristics; fast-grown wood had higher moisture content and higher moisture fluctuation than slow-grown wood in each respective coating system. The choice of coating system also affects the wood moisture content. The result indicates that in order to achieve low moisture content- excluding the effectiveness of coatings, wood characteristics should also be considered., The Bridge

Wood material has advantages, it comes from a renewable source and it is easy to manage. But one disadvantage when used outdoors is biological discoloration of the material. Some impact on the discoloration is the presence of moisture and nutrients, necessary components for the microorganisms to grow and start a colonisation. Samples made of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) heartwood or sapwood coated with two different film forming paints was studied. The paints had a binder formula made of alkyd or acrylate. Additional parameters related to study the influence of moisture content on discoloration were high and low density material, with and without impregnation oil. Outdoor exposure was made during five years in the southern part of Sweden. The samples were hung with 45 degree inclination, facing south direction. Visual differences in biological surface discoloration were observed for samples within the same paint, which could be explained by differences in heartwood and sapwood.

The heartwood and sapwood from Scots pine (PS), Norway spruce (PA), and Oriental spruce (PO) were tested for susceptibility to discoloring fungi and water uptake. In addition, annual ring width and density were measured. The methods used were Mycologg for testing growth of fungi and a modified version of EN 927-5 to investigate water uptake. For pine, the heartwood showed a lower water uptake and no discoloring fungi growing in the tests. The heartwood had a significantly higher density and smaller annual ring width than the sapwood. In PA the heartwood had significantly lower discoloration than sapwood. The total water uptake in g/m2 was significantly higher in sapwood, but not the calculated moisture content. As for wood properties, the density was significantly higher in sapwood compared to heartwood, although there were no differences in annual ring width. Regarding PO, differences in water uptake could be seen between sapwood and heartwood although the densities were similar. These results show that susceptibility to discoloring fungi and water uptake is hard to correlate to a single inherent property when looking at different wood species.

The main objectives of this dissertation project were to characterize and compare the fungal endophytic communities associated with rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis) distributed in wild habitats and under plantations. This study recovered an extensive number of isolates (more than 2,500) from a large sample size (190 individual trees) distributed in diverse regions (various locations in Peru, Cameroon, and Mexico). Molecular and classic taxonomic tools were used to identify, quantify, describe, and compare the diversity of the different assemblages. Innovative phylogenetic analyses for species delimitation were superimposed with ecological data to recognize operational taxonomic units (OTUs) or "putative species" within commonly found species complexes, helping in the detection of meaningful differences between tree populations. Sapwood and leaf fragments showed high infection frequency, but sapwood was inhabited by a significantly higher number of species. More than 700 OTUs were recovered, supporting the hypothesis that tropical fungal endophytes are highly diverse. Furthermore, this study shows that not only leaf tissue can harbor a high diversity of endophytes, but also that sapwood can contain an even more diverse assemblage. Wild and managed habitats presented high species richness of comparable complexity (phylogenetic diversity). Nevertheless, main differences were found in the assemblage's taxonomic composition and frequency of specific strains. Trees growing within their native range were dominated by strains belonging to Trichoderma and even though they were also present in managed trees, plantations trees were dominated by strains of Colletotrichum. Species of Trichoderma are known for their biocontrol properties, whereas species of Colletotrichum have been always associated with plant disease.

As the most important species in Europe’s forest industry, Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] has a very high economical impact. Unfortunately, the forest industry has yearly losses of approximately 800 million euro, because many Norway spruce stands suffer infection by one of the tree’s major pathogens Heterobasidion parviporum (Fr.) Niemelä & Korhonen. H. parviporum is a basidiomycete fungus. It belongs to a species complex called Heterobasidion annosum sensu lato, which includes four other Heterobasidion species besides H. parviporum, with other but slightly overlapping host ranges. To infect Norway spruce, H. parviporum spores need a surface presenting fresh wood, e. g. freshly occurring wounds in stems and roots or stump surface of a tree, to germinate and begin growing into the tree. Once H. parviporum has reached the inner column (heartwood) of the tree, it spreads vertically in the tree’s heartwood towards the crown and root system. When it reaches the root system, H. parviporum can use root-to- root contacts between spruce trees to spread from tree to tree. During its infection process it decays the heartwood as well as the roots. Therefore, the disease highly reduces timber quality and enhances the changes of storm breakage of infected Norway spruce trees. If the infection progresses H. parviporum will come into contact and interact with the sapwood, consisting not only of dead cells (tracheids) but also of living ray and parenchyma cells. Norway spruce reacts to this penetration by forming a defense barrier, called the reaction zone, which is highly compact and enriched in secondary metabolites that have the ability to restrict the invaders growth. Thus, the secondary metabolites encased in the reaction zone were shown to hinder fungal growth. Interestingly, recent research could correlate the presence of a reaction zone with reduced diameter growth of the trees. The authors suggested that formation of the reaction zone goes along with an enhanced in

Untreated Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) samples were exposed above ground in a durability test for six years. The samples consisted of three pieces of wood, 22x95x500 mm, screwed together; two pieces lengthwise with a third piece overlapping. Weight was measured, to calculate moisture content (MC), and samples checked regularly for cracks and fungal growth. Parameters investigated were heartwood/sapwood (pine), annual ring orientation (spruce), stand site, annual ring width and density. Stand site, annual ring width or density had no influence on MC or fungal growth for neither pine nor spruce. Spruce samples with vertical annual rings had lesser amounts of cracks than samples with horizontal annual rings. Regarding pine sapwood samples, they showed high MC and large amount of rot fungi, while heartwood had lower MC and no rot. Most spruce samples were similar to pine heartwood, except from a few samples that had high MC and fungal growth. Those were all sawn from the outer part of the log. Therefore, it can be stated that spruce sawn from the inner part has almost the same properties as pine heartwood while spruce from the outer part of the log has properties similar to pine sapwood.

Due to their long life span, changing climatic conditions are of particular importance for trees. Climate changes will affect the water balance, which can become an important limiting factor for photosynthesis and growth. Long-distance water transport in trees is directly related to the transpiration stream and very sensitive to changes in the soil-plant-atmosphere water continuum. Therefore the study of long distance transport gives information about tree response to changing climatic conditions. Here the dynamic behaviour of water transport processes in trees has been studied by the MRI method, which is a direct and non-invasive tool.. MRI flow imaging has been applied to diffuse- and ring-porous trees to study drought stress and the occurrence of xylem vessel cavitations. World-wide unique dedicated MRI hardware is described that allows imaging of sap flow in intact trees with a maximal trunk diameter of 4 cm and height of several meters. This setup is used to investigate xylem and phloem flow in an intact tree quantitatively. Flow is quantified in terms of (averaged) velocity, volume flow (flux) and flow conducting area, either in imaging mode or resolved on the level of annual rings. Results obtained for the same tree, imaged at two different field strengths (0.7 and 3 T), are compared. An overall shortening of observed T2 values is manifest going from 0.7 to 3 T. Although susceptibility artefacts may be present at 3 T, the results are still reliable and the gain in sensitivity due to the higher magnetic field strength results in shorter measurement time (or a better spatial resolution or a higher signal to noise ratio) with respect to the 0.7 T system. By use of such dedicated hardware xylem and phloem flow, and its mutual interaction, can be studied in intact trees in relation to the water balance and in response to environmental (stress) conditions (Chapter 2). To further investigate the effect of susceptibility artefacts on MRI flow imaging by PFG-STE MRI o