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Atxurra cave has a decorated assemblage composed of more than a hundred engraved animal depictions. All of them are located in deep parts of the cave and most of them are hidden in raised areas, away from the main path. The main sector is the “Ledge of the Horses”, located at 330 m from the entrance of the cave. It is a space of 12 m long and 1.5 m wide, elevated 4 m above the cave floor. This area includes almost fifty engraved and painted animals accompanied by a dozen flint tools, three fireplaces, and around one hundred charcoal fragments from torches. This extraordinary archaeological record allows us to value the complexity of the artistic production inside the caves during the Upper Palaeolithic. Our study has confirmed that there is planning prior to artistic production, both in terms of the iconographic aspects (themes, techniques, formats), its location (visibility, capacity), and the lighting systems. Furthermore, the data indicates the panel was decorated to be seen by third parties from different positions and was expressly illuminated for this purpose. This evidence supports the role of rock art as a visual communication system in Upper Palaeolithic societies.

Artificial lighting was a crucial physical resource for expanding complex social and economic behavior in Paleolithic groups. Furthermore, the control of fire allowed the development of the first symbolic behavior in deep caves, around 176 ky BP. These activities would increase during the Upper Paleolithic, when lighting residues proliferated at these sites. The physical peculiarities of Paleolithic lighting resources are very poorly understood, although this is a key aspect for the study of human activity within caves and other dark contexts. In this work, we characterize the main Paleolithic lighting systems (e.g., wooden torches, portable fat lamps, and fireplaces) through empirical observations and experimental archeology in an endokarstic context. Furthermore, each lighting system’s characteristic combustion residues were identified to achieve a better identification for the archaeological record. The experiments are based on an exhaustive review of archaeological information about this topic. Besides, we apply the estimated luminous data of a Paleolithic cave with Paleolithic art (Atxurra in northern Spain) in 3D through GIS technology to delve into the archeologic implications of illumination in Paleolithic underground activities.

Artificial lighting was a crucial physical resource for expanding complex social and economic behavior in Paleolithic groups. Furthermore, the control of fire allowed the development of the first symbolic behavior in deep caves, around 176 ky BP. These activities would increase during the Upper Paleolithic, when lighting residues proliferated at these sites. The physical peculiarities of Paleolithic lighting resources are very poorly understood, although this is a key aspect for the study of human activity within caves and other dark contexts. In this work, we characterize the main Paleolithic lighting systems (e.g., wooden torches, portable fat lamps, and fireplaces) through empirical observations and experimental archeology in an endokarstic context. Furthermore, each lighting system’s characteristic combustion residues were identified to achieve a better identification for the archaeological record. The experiments are based on an exhaustive review of archaeological information about this topic. Besides, we apply the estimated luminous data of a Paleolithic cave with Paleolithic art (Atxurra in northern Spain) in 3D through GIS technology to delve into the archeologic implications of illumination in Paleolithic underground activities.

Alkerdiko mendigune eta sistema karstikoaren, Alkerdi kobazuloaren eta bere babeseremuaren karakterizazio proiektuaren baitan, Alkerdi 2 barrunbearen azterketa zientifikoarekin jarraitu dugu. Barrunbearen garapen karstikoari buruzko espeleologia-prospekzio lanek galeria apaindu ezezagun bat aurkitzeko aukera sortu dute 2020an. Orain arte egindako lehen ikerketan, bisonte, zaldi eta basa-zezenen animalien irudikapenez osaturiko pintura eta grabatu multzoa ageri da, bulbekin apaindutako panel batekin eta gorriz egindako trazu bikoitzen multzo pare batekin osatuta., Within the framework of the characterization project of the karstic massif of Alkerdi and its system, the cave of Alkerdi and its protected environment, we have continued with the scientific study of the cave of Alkerdi 2. The speleological prospecting work of the karstic development of the cave has allowed locating an unknown decorated gallery in 2020. In a first study, a set of paintings and engravings has been detected inside, composed mainly of animal representations of bison, horses and aurochs, to which a panel decorated with vulvas and two sets of paired red traits are added., En el marco del proyecto de «Caracterización del macizo y sistema kárstico de Alkerdi, de la cueva de Alkerdi y de su entorno de protección», se continúa con el estudio científico de la cavidad de Alkerdi 2. Las labores de prospección espeleológica del desarrollo kárstico de la cavidad han permitido localizar una galería decorada inédita en 2020. En un primer estudio se ha identificado en su interior un conjunto de pinturas y de grabados compuestos principalmente por representaciones animales de bisontes, caballos y uros, a los que se unen un panel decorado con vulvas y dos conjuntos de trazos pareados en rojo.

Artificial lighting was a crucial physical resource for expanding complex social and economic behavior in Paleolithic groups. Furthermore, the control of fire allowed the development of the first symbolic behavior in deep caves, around 176 ky BP. These activities would increase during the Upper Paleolithic, when lighting residues proliferated at these sites. The physical peculiarities of Paleolithic lighting resources are very poorly understood, although this is a key aspect for the study of human activity within caves and other dark contexts. In this work, we characterize the main Paleolithic lighting systems (e.g., wooden torches, portable fat lamps, and fireplaces) through empirical observations and experimental archeology in an endokarstic context. Furthermore, each lighting system’s characteristic combustion residues were identified to achieve a better identification for the archaeological record. The experiments are based on an exhaustive review of archaeological information about this topic. Besides, we apply the estimated luminous data of a Paleolithic cave with Paleolithic art (Atxurra in northern Spain) in 3D through GIS technology to delve into the archeologic implications of illumination in Paleolithic underground activities.

Alkerdiko mendigune eta sistema karstikoaren zein Alkerdiko kobazuloaren eta bere babes eremuaren azterketarako proiektuaren barruan, Alkerdi 2 kobazuloaren miaketa burutu da. Ikerketa koordinatuek lurrazalean agerturiko aztarna arkeologikoekin erlazionaturiko labar arte multzo bat identifikatzea ahalbidetu dute. Grabaturiko animalien irudien estiloak Gravette aldiko giza presentzia bat frogatzen dute. Labar irudietako baten zein testuingurutik datorren ikatz baten erradiokarbonozko datazioek hau baieztatuko lukete. Beraz, Nafarroan agerturiko bigarren kobazulo apainduaren aurrean egongo ginateke, eta Foru Erkidegoko adibide artistiko zaharrenen aurrean., Within the framework of the characterization project of the massif and karst system of Alkerdi, the Alkerdi cave and its protective environment, the Alkerdi 2 cavity was explored. The coordinated work has made it possible to identify a set of parietal art associated with archaeological evidence on the surface. The style of the engraved animal points towards a Gravettian attribution for human presence. Radiocarbon dating of one of the parietal motifs and a charcoal from the archaeological context corroborate this idea. This is the second cavity decorated during the Paleolithic in Navarre and the oldest artistic remain in the Autonomous Community., En el marco del proyecto de «Caracterización del macizo y sistema kárstico de Alkerdi, de la cueva de Alkerdi y de su entorno de protección», se procede a la exploración de la cavidad de Alkerdi 2. Las labores coordinadas han permitido identificar un conjunto de arte parietal asociado a evidencias arqueológicas en superficie. El estilo de las grafías animales grabadas apunta hacia una atribución Gravetiense para la presencia humana. La datación por radiocarbono de uno de los motivos parietales y de un carbón procedente del contexto arqueológico, lo corroboran. Se trata así de la segunda cavidad decorada durante el Paleolítico en Navarra y la muestra artística más antigua de la Comunidad Foral.

Alkerdiko mendigune eta sistema karstikoaren zein Alkerdiko kobazuloaren eta bere babes eremuaren azterketarako proiektuaren barruan, Alkerdi 2 kobazuloaren miaketa burutu da. Ikerketa koordinatuek lurrazalean agerturiko aztarna arkeologikoekin erlazionaturiko labar arte multzo bat identifikatzea ahalbidetu dute. Grabaturiko animalien irudien estiloak Gravette aldiko giza presentzia bat frogatzen dute. Labar irudietako baten zein testuingurutik datorren ikatz baten erradiokarbonozko datazioek hau baieztatuko lukete. Beraz, Nafarroan agerturiko bigarren kobazulo apainduaren aurrean egongo ginateke, eta Foru Erkidegoko adibide artistiko zaharrenen aurrean., Within the framework of the characterization project of the massif and karst system of Alkerdi, the Alkerdi cave and its protective environment, the Alkerdi 2 cavity was explored. The coordinated work has made it possible to identify a set of parietal art associated with archaeological evidence on the surface. The style of the engraved animal points towards a Gravettian attribution for human presence. Radiocarbon dating of one of the parietal motifs and a charcoal from the archaeological context corroborate this idea. This is the second cavity decorated during the Paleolithic in Navarre and the oldest artistic remain in the Autonomous Community., En el marco del proyecto de «Caracterización del macizo y sistema kárstico de Alkerdi, de la cueva de Alkerdi y de su entorno de protección», se procede a la exploración de la cavidad de Alkerdi 2. Las labores coordinadas han permitido identificar un conjunto de arte parietal asociado a evidencias arqueológicas en superficie. El estilo de las grafías animales grabadas apunta hacia una atribución Gravetiense para la presencia humana. La datación por radiocarbono de uno de los motivos parietales y de un carbón procedente del contexto arqueológico, lo corroboran. Se trata así de la segunda cavidad decorada durante el Paleolítico en Navarra y la muestra artística más antigua de la Comunidad Foral.

An international group of archaeologists specializing in cave art explain the diffi-culties they faced to publish their response to another paper, previously published in Science (Hoffmann et al. 2018), reporting a Neanderthal origin of some Spanish cave pain-tings according to Uranium-thorium method. In their reply, they underlined the diffe-rent sources of error that lead to overestimate the dates and summarized the contra-dictions with archeological arguments. Some American reviewers put more trust in ar-cheometry than in European arqueology, which is unfamiliar to them. Thus, the paper passed through the hands of many reviewers and it took more than one year to finally publish it in Journal of Human Evolution. This whole process illustrates the lack of trans-parency in peer review procedures -although apparently objective and neutral- when renowned authors are concerned., Los autores exponen las dificultades por las que hubo de pasar la respuesta a un ar-tículo, publicado en Science en 2018, en el que se afirmaba que el Neandertal era el autor de ciertas pinturas de tres cuevas españolas, según dataciones obtenidas por el método del uranio-torio. En esa respuesta, se explicitaban las distintas fuentes de error que pue-den conducir a fechas anormalmente envejecidas y se recapitulaban los argumentos ar-queológicos que contradicen dataciones tan antiguas. Muchos de los evaluadores de las revistas americanas prefirieron confiar en la arqueometría más que en la Arqueología europea, para ellos desconocida. Así, el artículo circuló por las manos de numerosos re-visores, transcurriendo un año y medio antes de que pudiera, por fin, salir en el Journal of Human Evolution. Este proceso ilustra la opacidad que subyace tras la aparente obje-tividad y neutralidad del procedimiento de evaluación científica de revisión por pares cuando se trata de contradecir a científicos de reconocido prestigio.

An international group of archaeologists specializing in cave art explain the diffi-culties they faced to publish their response to another paper, previously published in Science (Hoffmann et al. 2018), reporting a Neanderthal origin of some Spanish cave pain-tings according to Uranium-thorium method. In their reply, they underlined the diffe-rent sources of error that lead to overestimate the dates and summarized the contra-dictions with archeological arguments. Some American reviewers put more trust in ar-cheometry than in European arqueology, which is unfamiliar to them. Thus, the paper passed through the hands of many reviewers and it took more than one year to finally publish it in Journal of Human Evolution. This whole process illustrates the lack of trans-parency in peer review procedures -although apparently objective and neutral- when renowned authors are concerned., Los autores exponen las dificultades por las que hubo de pasar la respuesta a un ar-tículo, publicado en Science en 2018, en el que se afirmaba que el Neandertal era el autor de ciertas pinturas de tres cuevas españolas, según dataciones obtenidas por el método del uranio-torio. En esa respuesta, se explicitaban las distintas fuentes de error que pue-den conducir a fechas anormalmente envejecidas y se recapitulaban los argumentos ar-queológicos que contradicen dataciones tan antiguas. Muchos de los evaluadores de las revistas americanas prefirieron confiar en la arqueometría más que en la Arqueología europea, para ellos desconocida. Así, el artículo circuló por las manos de numerosos re-visores, transcurriendo un año y medio antes de que pudiera, por fin, salir en el Journal of Human Evolution. Este proceso ilustra la opacidad que subyace tras la aparente obje-tividad y neutralidad del procedimiento de evaluación científica de revisión por pares cuando se trata de contradecir a científicos de reconocido prestigio.

An international group of archaeologists specializing in cave art explain the diffi-culties they faced to publish their response to another paper, previously published in Science (Hoffmann et al. 2018), reporting a Neanderthal origin of some Spanish cave pain-tings according to Uranium-thorium method. In their reply, they underlined the diffe-rent sources of error that lead to overestimate the dates and summarized the contra-dictions with archeological arguments. Some American reviewers put more trust in ar-cheometry than in European arqueology, which is unfamiliar to them. Thus, the paper passed through the hands of many reviewers and it took more than one year to finally publish it in Journal of Human Evolution. This whole process illustrates the lack of trans-parency in peer review procedures -although apparently objective and neutral- when renowned authors are concerned., Los autores exponen las dificultades por las que hubo de pasar la respuesta a un ar-tículo, publicado en Science en 2018, en el que se afirmaba que el Neandertal era el autor de ciertas pinturas de tres cuevas españolas, según dataciones obtenidas por el método del uranio-torio. En esa respuesta, se explicitaban las distintas fuentes de error que pue-den conducir a fechas anormalmente envejecidas y se recapitulaban los argumentos ar-queológicos que contradicen dataciones tan antiguas. Muchos de los evaluadores de las revistas americanas prefirieron confiar en la arqueometría más que en la Arqueología europea, para ellos desconocida. Así, el artículo circuló por las manos de numerosos re-visores, transcurriendo un año y medio antes de que pudiera, por fin, salir en el Journal of Human Evolution. Este proceso ilustra la opacidad que subyace tras la aparente obje-tividad y neutralidad del procedimiento de evaluación científica de revisión por pares cuando se trata de contradecir a científicos de reconocido prestigio.