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Understanding how extrinsic factors modulate genetically encoded information to produce a specific phenotype is of prime scientific interest. In particular, the feedback mechanism between abiotic forces and locomotory organs during morphogenesis to achieve efficient movement is a highly relevant example of such modulation. The study of this developmental process can provide unique insights on the transduction of cues at the interface between physics and biology. Here, we take advantage of the natural ability of adult zebrafish to regenerate their amputated fins to assess its morphogenic plasticity upon external modulations. Using a variety of surgical and chemical treatments, we could induce phenotypic responses to the structure of the fin. Through the ablation of specific rays in regenerating caudal fins, we generated artificially narrowed appendages in which the fin cleft depth and the positioning of rays bifurcations were perturbed compared with normal regenerates. To dissect the role of mechanotransduction in this process, we investigated the patterns of hydrodynamic forces acting on the surface of a zebrafish fin during regeneration by using particle tracking velocimetry on a range of biomimetic hydrofoils. This experimental approach enabled us to quantitatively compare hydrodynamic stress distributions over flapping fins of varying sizes and shapes. As a result, viscous shear stress acting on the distal margin of regenerating fins and the resulting internal tension are proposed as suitable signals for guiding the regulation of ray growth dynamics and branching pattern. Our findings suggest that mechanical forces are involved in the fine-tuning of the locomotory organ during fin morphogenesis.

Zebrafish can regenerate their damaged hearts throughout their lifespan. It is, however, unknown, whether regeneration remains effective when challenged with successive cycles of cardiac damage in the same animals. Here, we assessed ventricular restoration after two, three and six cryoinjuries interspaced by recovery periods. Using transgenic cell-lineage tracing analysis, we demonstrated that the second cryoinjury damages the regenerated area from the preceding injury, validating the experimental approach. We identified that after multiple cryoinjuries, all hearts regrow a thickened myocardium, similarly to hearts after one cryoinjury. However, the efficiency of scar resorption decreased with the number of repeated cryoinjuries. After six cryoinjuries, all examined hearts failed to completely resolve the fibrotic tissue, demonstrating reduced myocardial restoration. This phenotype was associated with enhanced recruitment of neutrophils and decreased cardiomyocyte proliferation and dedifferentiation at the early regenerative phase. Furthermore, we found that each repeated cryoinjury increased the accumulation of collagen at the injury site. Our analysis demonstrates that the cardiac regenerative program can be successfully activated many times, despite a persisting scar in the wounded area. This finding provides a new perspective for regenerative therapies, aiming in stimulation of organ regeneration in the presence of fibrotic tissue in mammalian models and humans.

Experiments on zebrafish show that the regeneration of the heart after an injury is supported by lymphatic vessels.

The nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase complex promotes cell fate decisions throughout embryonic development. Its core enzymatic subunit, the SNF2-like ATPase and Helicase Mi2, is well conserved throughout the eukaryotic kingdom and can be found in multiple and highly homologous copies in all vertebrates and some invertebrates. However, the reasons for such duplications and their implications for embryonic development are unknown.Results: Here we studied the two C. elegans Mi2 homologues, LET-418 and CHD-3, which displayed redundant activities during early embryonic development. At the transcriptional level, these two Mi2 homologues redundantly repressed the expression of a large gene population. We found that LET- 418 physically accumulated at TSS-proximal regions on transcriptionally active genomic targets involved in growth and development. Moreover, LET-418 acted redundantly with CHD-3 to block H3K4me3 deposition at these genes. Our study also revealed that LET-418 was partially responsible for recruiting Polycomb to chromatin and for promoting H3K27me3 deposition. Surprisingly, CHD-3 displayed opposite activities on Polycomb, as it was capable of moderating its LET-418-dependent recruitment and restricted the amount of H3K27me3 on the studied target genes.Conclusion: Although closely homologous, LET-418 and CHD-3 showed both redundant and opposite functions in modulating the chromatin environment at developmental target genes. We identified the interplay between LET-418 and CHD-3 to finely tune the levels of histone marks at developmental target genes. More than just repressors, Mi2-containing complexes appear as subtle modulators of gene expression throughout development. The study of such molecular variations in vertebrate Mi2 counterparts might provide crucial insights to our understanding of the epigenetic control of early development.

The zebrafish fin provides a valuable model to study the epimorphic type of regeneration, by which the amputated part of the appendage is nearly perfectly replaced. To accomplish fin regeneration, two reciprocally interacting domains need to be established at the injury site, namely, a wound epithelium and a blastema. The wound epithelium provides a supporting niche for the blastema, which contains mesenchyme-derived progenitor cells for the regenerate. The fate of blastemal daughter cells depends on their relative position with respect to the fin margin. The apical compartment of the outgrowth maintains its undifferentiated character, whereas the proximal descendants of the blastema progressively switch from the proliferation program to the morphogenesis program. A delicate balance between self-renewal and differentiation has to be continuously adjusted during the course of regeneration. This review summarizes the current knowledge about the cellular and molecular mechanisms of blastema formation, and discusses several studies related to the regulation of growth and morphogenesis during fin regeneration. A wide range of canonical signaling pathways has been implicated during the establishment and maintenance of the blastema. Epigenetic mechanisms play a crucial role for the regulation of the cellular plasticity during the transition between differentiation states. Ion fluxes, gap-junctional communication and protein phosphatase activity have been shown to coordinate proliferation and tissue patterning in the caudal fin. The identification of the downstream targets of the fin regeneration signals and the discovery of mechanisms integrating the variety of input pathways represent exciting future aims in this fascinating field of research.

Zebrafish heart regeneration relies on the capacity of cardiomyocytes to proliferate upon injury. To understand the principles of this process after cryoinjury-induced myocardial infarction, we established a spatio-temporal map of mitotic cardiomyocytes and their differentiation dynamics. Immunodetection of phosphohistone H3 and embryonic ventricular heavy chain myosin highlighted two distinct regenerative processes during the early phase of regeneration. The injury-abutting zone comprises a population of cardiac cells that reactivates the expression of embryo-specific sarcomeric proteins and it displays a 10-fold higher mitotic activity in comparison to the injury-remote zone. The undifferentiated cardiomyocytes resemble a blastema-like structure between the original and wound tissues. They integrate with the fibrotic tissue through the fibronectin-tenascin C extracellular matrix, and with the mature cardiomyocytes through upregulation of the tight junction marker, connexin 43. During the advanced regenerative phase, the population of undifferentiated cardiomyocytes disperses within the regenerating myocardium and it is not detected after the termination of regeneration. Although the blastema represents a transient landmark of the regenerating ventricle, the remaining mature myocardium also displays an enhanced mitotic index when compared to uninjured hearts. This suggests an unexpected contribution of a global proliferative activity to restore the impaired cardiac function. Based on these findings, we propose a new model of zebrafish heart regeneration that involves a combination of blastema-dependent epimorphosis and a compensatory organ-wide response.

Background: epimorphic regeneration of a missing appendage in fish and urodele amphibians involves the creation of a blastema, a heterogeneous pool of progenitor cells underneath the wound epidermis. Current evidence indicates that the blastema arises by dedifferentiation of stump tissues in the vicinity of the amputation. In response to tissue loss, silenced developmental programs are reactivated to form a near-perfect copy of the missing body part. However, the importance of chromatin regulation during epimorphic regeneration remains poorly understood.Results: we found that specific components of the Nucleosome Remodeling and Deacetylase complex (NuRD) are required for fin regeneration in zebrafish. Transcripts of the chromatin remodeler chd4a/Mi-2, the histone deacetylase hdac1/HDAC1/2, the retinoblastoma-binding protein rbb4/RBBP4/7, and the metastasis-associated antigen mta2/MTA were specifically co-induced in the blastema during adult and embryonic fin regeneration, and these transcripts displayed a similar spatial and temporal expression patterns. In addition, chemical inhibition of Hdac1 and morpholino-mediated knockdown of chd4a, mta2, and rbb4 impaired regenerative outgrowth, resulting in reduction in blastema cell proliferation and in differentiation defects.Conclusion: altogether, our data suggest that specialized NuRD components are induced in the blastema during fin regeneration and are involved in blastema cell proliferation and redifferentiation of osteoblast precursor cells. These results provide in vivo evidence for the involvement of key epigenetic factors in the cellular reprogramming processes occurring during epimorphic regeneration in zebrafish.

The evolutionarily conserved nucleosome-remodeling protein Mi2 is involved in transcriptional repression during development in various model systems, plays a role in embryonic patterning and germ line development, and participates in DNA repair and cell cycle progression. It is the catalytic subunit of the nucleosome remodeling and histone deacetylase (NuRD) complex, a key determinant of differentiation in mammalian embryonic stem cells. In addition, the Drosophila and C. elegans Mi2 homologs participate in another complex, the MEC complex, which also plays an important developmental role in these organisms. Here we show a new and unexpected feature of the C. elegans Mi2 homolog, LET-418/Mi2. Lack of LET-418/Mi2 results in longevity and enhanced stress resistance, a feature that we found to be conserved in Drosophila and in Arabidopsis. The fact that depletion of other components of the NuRD and the MEC complexes did not result in longevity suggests that LET-418 may regulate lifespan in a different molecular context. Genetic interaction studies suggest that let-418 could act in the germ-cell-loss pathway, downstream of kri-1 and tcer-1. On the basis of our data and on previous findings showing a role for let-418 during development, we propose that LET-418/Mi2 could be part of a system that drives development and reproduction with concomitant life-reducing effects later in life.

Biochemical purifications from mammalian cells and Xenopus oocytes revealed that vertebrate Mi-2 proteins reside in multisubunit NuRD (Nucleosome Remodeling and Deacetylase) complexes. Since all NuRD subunits are highly conserved in the genomes of C. elegans and Drosophila, it was suggested that NuRD complexes also exist in invertebrates. Recently, a novel dMec complex, composed of dMi-2 and dMEP-1 was identified in Drosophila. The genome of C. elegans encodes two highly homologous Mi-2 orthologues, LET-418 and CHD-3. Here we demonstrate that these proteins define at least three different protein complexes, two distinct NuRD complexes and one MEC complex. The two canonical NuRD complexes share the same core subunits HDA-1/HDAC, LIN-53/RbAp and LIN-40/MTA, but differ in their Mi-2 orthologues LET-418 or CHD-3. LET-418 but not CHD-3, interacts with the Krüppel-like protein MEP-1 in a distinct complex, the MEC complex. Based on microarrays analyses, we propose that MEC constitutes an important LET-418 containing regulatory complex during C. elegans embryonic and early larval development. It is required for the repression of germline potential in somatic cells and acts when blastomeres are still dividing and differentiating. The two NuRD complexes may not be important for the early development, but may act later during postembryonic development. Altogether, our data suggest a considerable complexity in the composition, the developmental function and the tissue-specificity of the different C. elegans Mi-2 complexes.

The existence of common mechanisms regulating organ regeneration is an intriguing concept. Here we report on a regulatory element that is transiently activated during heart and fin regeneration in zebrafish. This element contains a ctgfa upstream sequence, called careg, which is induced by TGFβ/Activin-β signalling in the peri-injury zone of the myocardium and the fin mesenchyme. In addition, this reporter demarcates a primordial cardiac layer and intraray osteoblasts. Using genetic fate mapping, we show the regenerative competence of careg-expressing cells. The analysis of the heart reveals that the primordial cardiac layer is incompletely restored after cryoinjury, whereas trabecular and cortical cardiomyocytes contribute to myocardial regrowth. In regenerating fins, the activated mesenchyme of the stump gives rise to the blastema. Our findings provide evidence of a common regenerative programme in cardiomyocytes and mesenchyme that opens the possibility to further explore conserved mechanisms of the cellular plasticity in diverse vertebrate organs.

Zebrafish heart regeneration depends on cardiac cell proliferation, epicardium activation and transient reparative tissue deposition. The contribution and the regulation of specific collagen types during the regenerative process, however, remain poorly characterized. Here, we identified that the non-fibrillar type XII collagen, which serves as a matrix-bridging component, is expressed in the epicardium of the zebrafish heart, and is boosted after cryoinjury-induced ventricular damage. During heart regeneration, an intense deposition of Collagen XII covers the outer epicardial cap and the interstitial reparative tissue. Analysis of the activated epicardium and fibroblast markers revealed a heterogeneous cellular origin of Collagen XII. Interestingly, this matrix-bridging collagen co-localized with fibrillar type I collagen and several glycoproteins in the post-injury zone, suggesting its role in tissue cohesion. Using SB431542, a selective inhibitor of the TGF-β receptor, we showed that while the inhibitor treatment did not affect the expression of collagen 12 and collagen 1a2 in the epicardium, it completely suppressed the induction of both genes in the fibrotic tissue. This suggests that distinct mechanisms might regulate collagen expression in the outer heart layer and the inner injury zone. On the basis of this study, we postulate that the TGF-β signaling pathway induces and coordinates formation of a transient collagenous network that comprises fibril-forming Collagen I and fiber-associated Collagen XII, both of which contribute to the reparative matrix of the regenerating zebrafish heart.

Zebrafish can regenerate their damaged hearts throughout their lifespan. It is, however, unknown, whether regeneration remains effective when challenged with successive cycles of cardiac damage in the same animals. Here, we assessed ventricular restoration after two, three and six cryoinjuries interspaced by recovery periods. Using transgenic cell-lineage tracing analysis, we demonstrated that the second cryoinjury damages the regenerated area from the preceding injury, validating the experimental approach. We identified that after multiple cryoinjuries, all hearts regrow a thickened myocardium, similarly to hearts after one cryoinjury. However, the efficiency of scar resorption decreased with the number of repeated cryoinjuries. After six cryoinjuries, all examined hearts failed to completely resolve the fibrotic tissue, demonstrating reduced myocardial restoration. This phenotype was associated with enhanced recruitment of neutrophils and decreased cardiomyocyte proliferation and dedifferentiation at the early regenerative phase. Furthermore, we found that each repeated cryoinjury increased the accumulation of collagen at the injury site. Our analysis demonstrates that the cardiac regenerative program can be successfully activated many times, despite a persisting scar in the wounded area. This finding provides a new perspective for regenerative therapies, aiming in stimulation of organ regeneration in the presence of fibrotic tissue in mammalian models and humans.

Experiments on zebrafish show that the regeneration of the heart after an injury is supported by lymphatic vessels.

Background: epimorphic regeneration of a missing appendage in fish and urodele amphibians involves the creation of a blastema, a heterogeneous pool of progenitor cells underneath the wound epidermis. Current evidence indicates that the blastema arises by dedifferentiation of stump tissues in the vicinity of the amputation. In response to tissue loss, silenced developmental programs are reactivated to form a near-perfect copy of the missing body part. However, the importance of chromatin regulation during epimorphic regeneration remains poorly understood.Results: we found that specific components of the Nucleosome Remodeling and Deacetylase complex (NuRD) are required for fin regeneration in zebrafish. Transcripts of the chromatin remodeler chd4a/Mi-2, the histone deacetylase hdac1/HDAC1/2, the retinoblastoma-binding protein rbb4/RBBP4/7, and the metastasis-associated antigen mta2/MTA were specifically co-induced in the blastema during adult and embryonic fin regeneration, and these transcripts displayed a similar spatial and temporal expression patterns. In addition, chemical inhibition of Hdac1 and morpholino-mediated knockdown of chd4a, mta2, and rbb4 impaired regenerative outgrowth, resulting in reduction in blastema cell proliferation and in differentiation defects.Conclusion: altogether, our data suggest that specialized NuRD components are induced in the blastema during fin regeneration and are involved in blastema cell proliferation and redifferentiation of osteoblast precursor cells. These results provide in vivo evidence for the involvement of key epigenetic factors in the cellular reprogramming processes occurring during epimorphic regeneration in zebrafish.

Zebrafish heart regeneration relies on the capacity of cardiomyocytes to proliferate upon injury. To understand the principles of this process after cryoinjury-induced myocardial infarction, we established a spatio-temporal map of mitotic cardiomyocytes and their differentiation dynamics. Immunodetection of phosphohistone H3 and embryonic ventricular heavy chain myosin highlighted two distinct regenerative processes during the early phase of regeneration. The injury-abutting zone comprises a population of cardiac cells that reactivates the expression of embryo-specific sarcomeric proteins and it displays a 10-fold higher mitotic activity in comparison to the injury-remote zone. The undifferentiated cardiomyocytes resemble a blastema-like structure between the original and wound tissues. They integrate with the fibrotic tissue through the fibronectin-tenascin C extracellular matrix, and with the mature cardiomyocytes through upregulation of the tight junction marker, connexin 43. During the advanced regenerative phase, the population of undifferentiated cardiomyocytes disperses within the regenerating myocardium and it is not detected after the termination of regeneration. Although the blastema represents a transient landmark of the regenerating ventricle, the remaining mature myocardium also displays an enhanced mitotic index when compared to uninjured hearts. This suggests an unexpected contribution of a global proliferative activity to restore the impaired cardiac function. Based on these findings, we propose a new model of zebrafish heart regeneration that involves a combination of blastema-dependent epimorphosis and a compensatory organ-wide response.

Biochemical purifications from mammalian cells and Xenopus oocytes revealed that vertebrate Mi-2 proteins reside in multisubunit NuRD (Nucleosome Remodeling and Deacetylase) complexes. Since all NuRD subunits are highly conserved in the genomes of C. elegans and Drosophila, it was suggested that NuRD complexes also exist in invertebrates. Recently, a novel dMec complex, composed of dMi-2 and dMEP-1 was identified in Drosophila. The genome of C. elegans encodes two highly homologous Mi-2 orthologues, LET-418 and CHD-3. Here we demonstrate that these proteins define at least three different protein complexes, two distinct NuRD complexes and one MEC complex. The two canonical NuRD complexes share the same core subunits HDA-1/HDAC, LIN-53/RbAp and LIN-40/MTA, but differ in their Mi-2 orthologues LET-418 or CHD-3. LET-418 but not CHD-3, interacts with the Krüppel-like protein MEP-1 in a distinct complex, the MEC complex. Based on microarrays analyses, we propose that MEC constitutes an important LET-418 containing regulatory complex during C. elegans embryonic and early larval development. It is required for the repression of germline potential in somatic cells and acts when blastomeres are still dividing and differentiating. The two NuRD complexes may not be important for the early development, but may act later during postembryonic development. Altogether, our data suggest a considerable complexity in the composition, the developmental function and the tissue-specificity of the different C. elegans Mi-2 complexes.

The nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase complex promotes cell fate decisions throughout embryonic development. Its core enzymatic subunit, the SNF2-like ATPase and Helicase Mi2, is well conserved throughout the eukaryotic kingdom and can be found in multiple and highly homologous copies in all vertebrates and some invertebrates. However, the reasons for such duplications and their implications for embryonic development are unknown.Results: Here we studied the two C. elegans Mi2 homologues, LET-418 and CHD-3, which displayed redundant activities during early embryonic development. At the transcriptional level, these two Mi2 homologues redundantly repressed the expression of a large gene population. We found that LET- 418 physically accumulated at TSS-proximal regions on transcriptionally active genomic targets involved in growth and development. Moreover, LET-418 acted redundantly with CHD-3 to block H3K4me3 deposition at these genes. Our study also revealed that LET-418 was partially responsible for recruiting Polycomb to chromatin and for promoting H3K27me3 deposition. Surprisingly, CHD-3 displayed opposite activities on Polycomb, as it was capable of moderating its LET-418-dependent recruitment and restricted the amount of H3K27me3 on the studied target genes.Conclusion: Although closely homologous, LET-418 and CHD-3 showed both redundant and opposite functions in modulating the chromatin environment at developmental target genes. We identified the interplay between LET-418 and CHD-3 to finely tune the levels of histone marks at developmental target genes. More than just repressors, Mi2-containing complexes appear as subtle modulators of gene expression throughout development. The study of such molecular variations in vertebrate Mi2 counterparts might provide crucial insights to our understanding of the epigenetic control of early development.

The zebrafish fin provides a valuable model to study the epimorphic type of regeneration, by which the amputated part of the appendage is nearly perfectly replaced. To accomplish fin regeneration, two reciprocally interacting domains need to be established at the injury site, namely, a wound epithelium and a blastema. The wound epithelium provides a supporting niche for the blastema, which contains mesenchyme-derived progenitor cells for the regenerate. The fate of blastemal daughter cells depends on their relative position with respect to the fin margin. The apical compartment of the outgrowth maintains its undifferentiated character, whereas the proximal descendants of the blastema progressively switch from the proliferation program to the morphogenesis program. A delicate balance between self-renewal and differentiation has to be continuously adjusted during the course of regeneration. This review summarizes the current knowledge about the cellular and molecular mechanisms of blastema formation, and discusses several studies related to the regulation of growth and morphogenesis during fin regeneration. A wide range of canonical signaling pathways has been implicated during the establishment and maintenance of the blastema. Epigenetic mechanisms play a crucial role for the regulation of the cellular plasticity during the transition between differentiation states. Ion fluxes, gap-junctional communication and protein phosphatase activity have been shown to coordinate proliferation and tissue patterning in the caudal fin. The identification of the downstream targets of the fin regeneration signals and the discovery of mechanisms integrating the variety of input pathways represent exciting future aims in this fascinating field of research.

The evolutionarily conserved nucleosome-remodeling protein Mi2 is involved in transcriptional repression during development in various model systems, plays a role in embryonic patterning and germ line development, and participates in DNA repair and cell cycle progression. It is the catalytic subunit of the nucleosome remodeling and histone deacetylase (NuRD) complex, a key determinant of differentiation in mammalian embryonic stem cells. In addition, the Drosophila and C. elegans Mi2 homologs participate in another complex, the MEC complex, which also plays an important developmental role in these organisms. Here we show a new and unexpected feature of the C. elegans Mi2 homolog, LET-418/Mi2. Lack of LET-418/Mi2 results in longevity and enhanced stress resistance, a feature that we found to be conserved in Drosophila and in Arabidopsis. The fact that depletion of other components of the NuRD and the MEC complexes did not result in longevity suggests that LET-418 may regulate lifespan in a different molecular context. Genetic interaction studies suggest that let-418 could act in the germ-cell-loss pathway, downstream of kri-1 and tcer-1. On the basis of our data and on previous findings showing a role for let-418 during development, we propose that LET-418/Mi2 could be part of a system that drives development and reproduction with concomitant life-reducing effects later in life.