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There is an ongoing debate on whether the observed decadal variations in surface solar radiation, known as "dimming" and "brightening" periods, are a large-scale or solely local phenomenon. We investigated this issue using long-term sunshine duration records from China, which experienced a rapid increase in urbanization during the past decades. Over the period 1960-2013, 172 pairs of urban and nearby rural stations were analyzed. Urban and rural sunshine duration trends show similar spatial patterns during a dimming phase (1960-1989) and a subsequent period during which trends were leveling off (1990-2013). This indicates that rather than local effects, the trends in sunshine duration are on more of a national or regional scale in China. Nevertheless, in the dimming phase, the declining rate of sunshine duration in rural areas is around two-thirds of that in urban areas. The ratio of rural to urban dimming generally increases from a minimum of 0.39 to a maximum of 0.87 with increasing indices of urbanization calculated based on the year 2013. It reaches a maximum when the urbanization level exceeds 50 %, the urban population exceeds 20 million, or the population density becomes higher than 250 person km(-2). After the transition into the leveling-off period, sunshine duration trends are no longer significantly affected by urbanization. Meanwhile, the number of laws and regulations related to air pollution and investment in pollution treatment have been increasing in China.

This paper presents an analysis of gravity wave activity over northern Sweden as deduced from 18 years of wintertime lidar measurements at Esrange (68ºN, 21ºE). Gravity wave potential energy density (GWPED) was used to characterize the strength of gravity waves in the altitude regions 30–40km and 40–50 km. The obtained values ex- ceed previous observations reported in the literature. This is suggested to be due to Esrange’s location downwind of the Scandinavian mountain range and due to differences in the various methods that are currently used to retrieve gravity wave parameters. The analysis method restricted the identification of the dominating vertical wavelengths to a range from 2 to 13 km. No preference was found for any wavelength in this window. Monthly mean values of GW- PED show that most of the gravity waves’ energy dissipates well below the stratopause and that higher altitude regions show only small dissipation rates of GWPED. Our analy- sis does not reproduce the previously reported negative trend in gravity wave activity over Esrange. The observed inter-annual variability of GWPED is connected to the occurrence of stratospheric warmings with generally lower wintertime mean GWPED during years with major stratospheric warmings. A bimodal GWPED occurrence frequency indicates that gravitywave activity at Esrange is affected by both ubiq- uitous wave sources and orographic forcing.

This paper presents an analysis of gravity wave activity over northern Sweden as deduced from 18 years of wintertime lidar measurements at Esrange (68ºN, 21ºE). Gravity wave potential energy density (GWPED) was used to characterize the strength of gravity waves in the altitude regions 30–40km and 40–50 km. The obtained values ex- ceed previous observations reported in the literature. This is suggested to be due to Esrange’s location downwind of the Scandinavian mountain range and due to differences in the various methods that are currently used to retrieve gravity wave parameters. The analysis method restricted the identification of the dominating vertical wavelengths to a range from 2 to 13 km. No preference was found for any wavelength in this window. Monthly mean values of GW- PED show that most of the gravity waves’ energy dissipates well below the stratopause and that higher altitude regions show only small dissipation rates of GWPED. Our analy- sis does not reproduce the previously reported negative trend in gravity wave activity over Esrange. The observed inter-annual variability of GWPED is connected to the occurrence of stratospheric warmings with generally lower wintertime mean GWPED during years with major stratospheric warmings. A bimodal GWPED occurrence frequency indicates that gravitywave activity at Esrange is affected by both ubiq- uitous wave sources and orographic forcing.

This paper presents an analysis of gravity wave activity over northern Sweden as deduced from 18 years of wintertime lidar measurements at Esrange (68ºN, 21ºE). Gravity wave potential energy density (GWPED) was used to characterize the strength of gravity waves in the altitude regions 30–40km and 40–50 km. The obtained values ex- ceed previous observations reported in the literature. This is suggested to be due to Esrange’s location downwind of the Scandinavian mountain range and due to differences in the various methods that are currently used to retrieve gravity wave parameters. The analysis method restricted the identification of the dominating vertical wavelengths to a range from 2 to 13 km. No preference was found for any wavelength in this window. Monthly mean values of GW- PED show that most of the gravity waves’ energy dissipates well below the stratopause and that higher altitude regions show only small dissipation rates of GWPED. Our analy- sis does not reproduce the previously reported negative trend in gravity wave activity over Esrange. The observed inter-annual variability of GWPED is connected to the occurrence of stratospheric warmings with generally lower wintertime mean GWPED during years with major stratospheric warmings. A bimodal GWPED occurrence frequency indicates that gravitywave activity at Esrange is affected by both ubiq- uitous wave sources and orographic forcing.

This paper presents an analysis of gravity wave activity over northern Sweden as deduced from 18 years of wintertime lidar measurements at Esrange (68ºN, 21ºE). Gravity wave potential energy density (GWPED) was used to characterize the strength of gravity waves in the altitude regions 30–40km and 40–50 km. The obtained values ex- ceed previous observations reported in the literature. This is suggested to be due to Esrange’s location downwind of the Scandinavian mountain range and due to differences in the various methods that are currently used to retrieve gravity wave parameters. The analysis method restricted the identification of the dominating vertical wavelengths to a range from 2 to 13 km. No preference was found for any wavelength in this window. Monthly mean values of GW- PED show that most of the gravity waves’ energy dissipates well below the stratopause and that higher altitude regions show only small dissipation rates of GWPED. Our analy- sis does not reproduce the previously reported negative trend in gravity wave activity over Esrange. The observed inter-annual variability of GWPED is connected to the occurrence of stratospheric warmings with generally lower wintertime mean GWPED during years with major stratospheric warmings. A bimodal GWPED occurrence frequency indicates that gravitywave activity at Esrange is affected by both ubiq- uitous wave sources and orographic forcing.

This paper presents an analysis of gravity wave activity over northern Sweden as deduced from 18 years of wintertime lidar measurements at Esrange (68ºN, 21ºE). Gravity wave potential energy density (GWPED) was used to characterize the strength of gravity waves in the altitude regions 30–40km and 40–50 km. The obtained values ex- ceed previous observations reported in the literature. This is suggested to be due to Esrange’s location downwind of the Scandinavian mountain range and due to differences in the various methods that are currently used to retrieve gravity wave parameters. The analysis method restricted the identification of the dominating vertical wavelengths to a range from 2 to 13 km. No preference was found for any wavelength in this window. Monthly mean values of GW- PED show that most of the gravity waves’ energy dissipates well below the stratopause and that higher altitude regions show only small dissipation rates of GWPED. Our analy- sis does not reproduce the previously reported negative trend in gravity wave activity over Esrange. The observed inter-annual variability of GWPED is connected to the occurrence of stratospheric warmings with generally lower wintertime mean GWPED during years with major stratospheric warmings. A bimodal GWPED occurrence frequency indicates that gravitywave activity at Esrange is affected by both ubiq- uitous wave sources and orographic forcing.

This paper presents an analysis of gravity wave activity over northern Sweden as deduced from 18 years of wintertime lidar measurements at Esrange (68ºN, 21ºE). Gravity wave potential energy density (GWPED) was used to characterize the strength of gravity waves in the altitude regions 30–40km and 40–50 km. The obtained values ex- ceed previous observations reported in the literature. This is suggested to be due to Esrange’s location downwind of the Scandinavian mountain range and due to differences in the various methods that are currently used to retrieve gravity wave parameters. The analysis method restricted the identification of the dominating vertical wavelengths to a range from 2 to 13 km. No preference was found for any wavelength in this window. Monthly mean values of GW- PED show that most of the gravity waves’ energy dissipates well below the stratopause and that higher altitude regions show only small dissipation rates of GWPED. Our analy- sis does not reproduce the previously reported negative trend in gravity wave activity over Esrange. The observed inter-annual variability of GWPED is connected to the occurrence of stratospheric warmings with generally lower wintertime mean GWPED during years with major stratospheric warmings. A bimodal GWPED occurrence frequency indicates that gravitywave activity at Esrange is affected by both ubiq- uitous wave sources and orographic forcing.

As the main result in Ge's paper, Ge announced that he proved a formula on the distribution of Morlet wavelet power spectrum of continuous-time Gaussian white noise in a rigorous statistical framework. In this paper, we will show that Ge's formula is wrong and each step of Ge's proof is wrong. Moreover, we give and prove a correct formula in a rigorous statistical framework.

The AURA-MLS daily mean temperatures and zonal wind from NASA-MERRA reanalysis for latitudes between 60° N and 80° N are used to investigate the planetary wave (PW) characteristics in the stratosphere and lower mesosphere during sudden stratospheric warming (SSW) (November 2008 to March 2009). Here, we used a novel method called empirical mode decomposition (EMD) to extract the PWs from the temperature data. The EMD is an interesting approach to decompose signals into locally periodic components, the intrinsic mode functions (IMFs), and will easily identify the embedded structures, even those with small amplitudes. The spectral analysis reveals prevailing planetary wave periods of ~6-day, ~8-day, ~15-day, and ~21–23-day in IMFs 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Clear upward propagation of these waves (20–30 days) is observed, suggesting that sources for these oscillations are in the troposphere.

The AURA-MLS daily mean temperatures and zonal wind from NASA-MERRA reanalysis for latitudes between 60° N and 80° N are used to investigate the planetary wave (PW) characteristics in the stratosphere and lower mesosphere during sudden stratospheric warming (SSW) (November 2008 to March 2009). Here, we used a novel method called empirical mode decomposition (EMD) to extract the PWs from the temperature data. The EMD is an interesting approach to decompose signals into locally periodic components, the intrinsic mode functions (IMFs), and will easily identify the embedded structures, even those with small amplitudes. The spectral analysis reveals prevailing planetary wave periods of ~6-day, ~8-day, ~15-day, and ~21–23-day in IMFs 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Clear upward propagation of these waves (20–30 days) is observed, suggesting that sources for these oscillations are in the troposphere.

Meteor wind data from the first year of operation of the Falkland Islands SuperDARN radar (52 degrees S, 59 degrees W) are used to characterize the atmospheric tides and background winds in the upper mesosphere above the South Atlantic. Strong (>40 ms(-1)) semidiurnal tides are observed in the winter time and large amplitude (>60 ms(-1)) bursts of quasi two-day wave activity are seen in January 2011. Data are in good agreement with those presented from the SAAMER meteor radar (54 degrees S, 68 degrees W). Comparison with SuperDARN meteor wind data from a geographically similar Northern Hemisphere site at Goose Bay (53 degrees N 60 degrees W) reveal clear interhemispheric differences especially in the semidiurnal and terdiurnal components of the tides. The winter time amplitudes of the tides are much stronger in the Southern Hemisphere than in the north. Background winds are observed to be significantly more polewards and westwards throughout the year than those predicted by the empirical horizontal wind model HWM07.

Short-period gravity waves of especially-small horizontal scale have been observed in the Maui, Hawaii airglow. Typical small-scale gravity wave events have been investigated, and intrinsic wave propagation characteristics have been calculated from simultaneous meteor radar wind measurements. Here we report specific cases where wave structure is significantly determined by the local wind structure, and where wave characteristics are consistent with ducted or evanescent waves throughout the mesopause region. Two of the documented events, exhibiting similar airglow signatures but dramatically different propagation conditions, are selected for simple numerical modeling case studies. First, a Doppler-ducted wave trapped within relatively weak wind flow is examined. Model results confirm that the wave is propagating in the 85–95 km region, trapped weakly by evanescence above and below. Second, an evanescent wave in strong wind flow is examined. Model results suggest an opposite case from the first case study, where the wave is instead trapped above or below the mesopause region, with strong evanescence arising in the 85–95 km airglow region. Distinct differences between the characteristics of these visibly-similar wave events demonstrate the need for simultaneous observations of mesopause winds to properly assess local propagation conditions.

The AMMA (African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis) program is dedicated to providing a better understanding of the West African monsoon and its influence on the physical, chemical and biological environment regionally and globally, as well as relating variability of this monsoon system to issues of health, water resources, food security and demography for West African nations. Within this framework, an intensive field campaign took place during the summer of 2006 to better document specific processes and weather systems at various key stages of this monsoon season. This campaign was embedded within a longer observation period that documented the annual cycle of surface and atmospheric conditions between 2005 and 2007. The present paper provides a large and regional scale overview of the 2006 summer monsoon season, that includes consideration of of the convective activity, mean atmospheric circulation and synoptic/intraseasonal weather systems, oceanic and land surface conditions, continental hydrology, dust concentration and ozone distribution. The 2006 African summer monsoon was a near-normal rainy season except for a large-scale rainfall excess north of 15 degrees N. This monsoon season was also characterized by a 10-day delayed onset compared to climatology, with convection becoming developed only after 10 July. This onset delay impacted the continental hydrology, soil moisture and vegetation dynamics as well as dust emission. More details of some less-well-known atmospheric features in the African monsoon at intraseasonal and synoptic scales are provided in order to promote future research in these areas.

Transient luminous events, such as red sprites, occur in the middle atmosphere in the electric field above thunderstorms. We here address the question whether these processes may be a significant source of odd nitrogen and affect ozone or other important trace species. A well-established coupled ion-neutral chemical model has been extended for this purpose and applied together with estimated rates of ionisation, excitation and dissociation based on spectroscopic ratios from ISUAL on FORMOSAT-2. This approach is used to estimate the NOx and ozone changes for two type cases. The NOx enhancements are at most one order of magnitude in the streamers, which means a production of at most 10 mol per event, or ( given a global rate of occurrence of three events per minute) some 150-1500 kg per day. The present study therefore indicates that sprites are insignificant as a global source of NOx. Local effects on ozone are also negligible, but the local enhancement of NOx may be significant, up to 5 times the minimum background at 70 km in extraordinary cases.

The AMMA (African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis) program is dedicated to providing a better understanding of the West African monsoon and its influence on the physical, chemical and biological environment regionally and globally, as well as relating variability of this monsoon system to issues of health, water resources, food security and demography for West African nations. Within this framework, an intensive field campaign took place during the summer of 2006 to better document specific processes and weather systems at various key stages of this monsoon season. This campaign was embedded within a longer observation period that documented the annual cycle of surface and atmospheric conditions between 2005 and 2007. The present paper provides a large and regional scale overview of the 2006 summer monsoon season, that includes consideration of of the convective activity, mean atmospheric circulation and synoptic/intraseasonal weather systems, oceanic and land surface conditions, continental hydrology, dust concentration and ozone distribution. The 2006 African summer monsoon was a near-normal rainy season except for a large-scale rainfall excess north of 15 degrees N. This monsoon season was also characterized by a 10-day delayed onset compared to climatology, with convection becoming developed only after 10 July. This onset delay impacted the continental hydrology, soil moisture and vegetation dynamics as well as dust emission. More details of some less-well-known atmospheric features in the African monsoon at intraseasonal and synoptic scales are provided in order to promote future research in these areas.

The AMMA (African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis) program is dedicated to providing a better understanding of the West African monsoon and its influence on the physical, chemical and biological environment regionally and globally, as well as relating variability of this monsoon system to issues of health, water resources, food security and demography for West African nations. Within this framework, an intensive field campaign took place during the summer of 2006 to better document specific processes and weather systems at various key stages of this monsoon season. This campaign was embedded within a longer observation period that documented the annual cycle of surface and atmospheric conditions between 2005 and 2007. The present paper provides a large and regional scale overview of the 2006 summer monsoon season, that includes consideration of of the convective activity, mean atmospheric circulation and synoptic/intraseasonal weather systems, oceanic and land surface conditions, continental hydrology, dust concentration and ozone distribution. The 2006 African summer monsoon was a near-normal rainy season except for a large-scale rainfall excess north of 15 degrees N. This monsoon season was also characterized by a 10-day delayed onset compared to climatology, with convection becoming developed only after 10 July. This onset delay impacted the continental hydrology, soil moisture and vegetation dynamics as well as dust emission. More details of some less-well-known atmospheric features in the African monsoon at intraseasonal and synoptic scales are provided in order to promote future research in these areas.

Transient luminous events, such as red sprites, occur in the middle atmosphere in the electric field above thunderstorms. We here address the question whether these processes may be a significant source of odd nitrogen and affect ozone or other important trace species. A well-established coupled ion-neutral chemical model has been extended for this purpose and applied together with estimated rates of ionisation, excitation and dissociation based on spectroscopic ratios from ISUAL on FORMOSAT-2. This approach is used to estimate the NOx and ozone changes for two type cases. The NOx enhancements are at most one order of magnitude in the streamers, which means a production of at most 10 mol per event, or ( given a global rate of occurrence of three events per minute) some 150-1500 kg per day. The present study therefore indicates that sprites are insignificant as a global source of NOx. Local effects on ozone are also negligible, but the local enhancement of NOx may be significant, up to 5 times the minimum background at 70 km in extraordinary cases.

Transient luminous events, such as red sprites, occur in the middle atmosphere in the electric field above thunderstorms. We here address the question whether these processes may be a significant source of odd nitrogen and affect ozone or other important trace species. A well-established coupled ion-neutral chemical model has been extended for this purpose and applied together with estimated rates of ionisation, excitation and dissociation based on spectroscopic ratios from ISUAL on FORMOSAT-2. This approach is used to estimate the NOx and ozone changes for two type cases. The NOx enhancements are at most one order of magnitude in the streamers, which means a production of at most 10 mol per event, or ( given a global rate of occurrence of three events per minute) some 150-1500 kg per day. The present study therefore indicates that sprites are insignificant as a global source of NOx. Local effects on ozone are also negligible, but the local enhancement of NOx may be significant, up to 5 times the minimum background at 70 km in extraordinary cases.

Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) data have been analysed to ascertain the statistical pattern of lightning occurrence over southern Africa. The diurnal and seasonal variations are mapped in detail. The highest flash rates (107.2 km(-2) y(-1)) occur close to the equator but maxima are also found over Madagascar (32.1 km(-2) y(-1)) and South Africa (26.4 km(-2) y(-1)). A feature of the statistics is a relatively steady contribution from over the ocean off the east coast of South Africa that appears to be associated with the Agulhas current. Lightning statistics are of intrinsic meteorological interest but they also relate to the occurrence of whistlers in the conjugate region. Whistler observations are made at Tihany, Hungary. Statistics reveal that the period of most frequent whistler occurrence does not correspond to the maximum in lightning activity in the conjugate region but is strongly influenced by ionospheric illumination and other factors. The whistler/flash ratio, R, shows remarkable variations during the year and has a peak that is narrowly confined to February and March., QC 20100920

Observations of neutral winds from rocket release experiments within the premidnight and postmidnight substorm recovery phase aurora, show very large E-region neutral winds of several hundred m/s, where winds measured on the dusk side are even larger than those on the dawn side. These large winds are also associated with strong shears, and there is evidence that some of the regions below these shears may be unstable. The mechanisms which generate this strong vertical structure are not well understood. It is also not known whether the acceleration conditions in the pre and post midnight sectors of the aurora may produce significantly different neutral responses on the dawn and dusk sides. Simulations have been performed using a three-dimensional high resolution limited area thermosphere model to try to understand the neutral structure within the dawn and dusk side aurora. When simulations are performed using auroral forcing alone, for equivalent conditions within the dawn and dusk sectors, differences are found in the simulated response on each side. When measured values of auroral forcing parameters, and background winds and tides consistent with recent observations, are used as model inputs, some of the main features of the zonal and meridional wind observations are reproduced in the simulations, but the magnitude of the peak zonal wind around 140 km tends to be too small and the maximum meridional wind around 130 km is overestimated. The winds above 120 km altitude are found to be sensitive to changes in electric fields and ion densities, as was the case for the dawn side, but the effects of background winds and tides on the magnitudes of the winds above 120 km are found to be relatively small on the dusk side. The structure below 120 km appears to be related mainly to background winds and tides rather than auroral forcing, as was found in earlier studies on the dawn side, although the peak magnitudes of simulated wind variations in the 100 to 120 km altitude rang

Measurements of the neutral thermosphere within the postmidnight substorm recovery phase diffuse aurora show very large horizontal winds, and strong vertical structure. Rocket, satellite, and ground based observations during the ARIA (Atmospheric Response in Aurora) campaigns, and earlier dawn side rocket observations, indicate neutral winds of up to 200m/s, and a characteristic jet-like wind maximum around 110 to 120-km altitude, with strong shears above and below. The observed wind magnitudes are found to have a dependence on geomagnetic activity level, but recent modeling studies suggest that tides which propagate up from the troposphere and stratosphere may play an important role in generating the strong vertical variations in the neutral winds. The relative importance of auroral and tidal forcing in producing the measured wind structure is not known, however. Simulations have been performed using a three dimensional (3-D) high resolution limited area thermosphere model to understand the processes which generate the observed neutral structure within the postmidnight diffuse aurora. Parameters measured during the ARIA I observational campaign have been used to provide auroral forcing inputs for the model. Global background winds and tides have been provided by the CTIP (Coupled Thermosphere Ionosphere Plasmasphere) model. The sensitivity of the response of the neutral atmosphere to changes in different parameters has been examined. Variations in the amplitudes and phases of the propagating tides in the background winds are found to have significant effects on the neutral structure in the E region, and the wind structure below around I 10 km is found to be mainly produced by tidal forcing. Changes in the electric field and ion density affect the winds above around 120km, and the importance of auroral forcing is found to depend on background winds. Variations in the orientation of the aurora relative to the background field, which may be caused by changes in the in

Observations of neutral winds from rocket release experiments within the premidnight and postmidnight substorm recovery phase aurora, show very large E-region neutral winds of several hundred m/s, where winds measured on the dusk side are even larger than those on the dawn side. These large winds are also associated with strong shears, and there is evidence that some of the regions below these shears may be unstable. The mechanisms which generate this strong vertical structure are not well understood. It is also not known whether the acceleration conditions in the pre and post midnight sectors of the aurora may produce significantly different neutral responses on the dawn and dusk sides. Simulations have been performed using a three-dimensional high resolution limited area thermosphere model to try to understand the neutral structure within the dawn and dusk side aurora. When simulations are performed using auroral forcing alone, for equivalent conditions within the dawn and dusk sectors, differences are found in the simulated response on each side. When measured values of auroral forcing parameters, and background winds and tides consistent with recent observations, are used as model inputs, some of the main features of the zonal and meridional wind observations are reproduced in the simulations, but the magnitude of the peak zonal wind around 140 km tends to be too small and the maximum meridional wind around 130 km is overestimated. The winds above 120 km altitude are found to be sensitive to changes in electric fields and ion densities, as was the case for the dawn side, but the effects of background winds and tides on the magnitudes of the winds above 120 km are found to be relatively small on the dusk side. The structure below 120 km appears to be related mainly to background winds and tides rather than auroral forcing, as was found in earlier studies on the dawn side, although the peak magnitudes of simulated wind variations in the 100 to 120 km altitude rang

Measurements of the neutral thermosphere within the postmidnight substorm recovery phase diffuse aurora show very large horizontal winds, and strong vertical structure. Rocket, satellite, and ground based observations during the ARIA (Atmospheric Response in Aurora) campaigns, and earlier dawn side rocket observations, indicate neutral winds of up to 200m/s, and a characteristic jet-like wind maximum around 110 to 120-km altitude, with strong shears above and below. The observed wind magnitudes are found to have a dependence on geomagnetic activity level, but recent modeling studies suggest that tides which propagate up from the troposphere and stratosphere may play an important role in generating the strong vertical variations in the neutral winds. The relative importance of auroral and tidal forcing in producing the measured wind structure is not known, however. Simulations have been performed using a three dimensional (3-D) high resolution limited area thermosphere model to understand the processes which generate the observed neutral structure within the postmidnight diffuse aurora. Parameters measured during the ARIA I observational campaign have been used to provide auroral forcing inputs for the model. Global background winds and tides have been provided by the CTIP (Coupled Thermosphere Ionosphere Plasmasphere) model. The sensitivity of the response of the neutral atmosphere to changes in different parameters has been examined. Variations in the amplitudes and phases of the propagating tides in the background winds are found to have significant effects on the neutral structure in the E region, and the wind structure below around I 10 km is found to be mainly produced by tidal forcing. Changes in the electric field and ion density affect the winds above around 120km, and the importance of auroral forcing is found to depend on background winds. Variations in the orientation of the aurora relative to the background field, which may be caused by changes in the in

This work reports on observations of O+ lines in aurora over Svalbard, Norway. The Spectrographic Imaging Facility measures auroral spectra in three wavelength intervals(H-beta, N-2(+) 1N(0,2) and N-2(+) 1N(1,3)). The oxygen ion P-4-D-4(0) multiplet (4639-4696 Angstrom) is blended with the N-2(+) 1N(1,3) band. It is found that in electron aurora, the brightness of this multiplet, is on average, about 0.1 of the N-2(+) 1N(0,2) total brightness. A joint optical and incoherent scatter radar study of an electron aurora event shows that the ratio is enhanced when the ionisation in the upper E-layer (140-190 km) is significant with respect to the E-layer peak below 130 km. Rayed arcs were observed on one such occasion, whereas on other occasions the auroral intensity was below the threshold of the imager. A one-dimensional electron transport model is used to estimate the cross section for production of the multiplet in electron collisions, yielding 0.18 x 10(-18) cm(2)., QC 20100525 QC 20111101

Evapotranspiration is integral to studies of the Earth system, yet it is difficult to measure on regional scales. One estimation technique is a terrestrial water budget, i.e., total precipitation minus the sum of evapotranspiration and net runoff equals the change in water storage. Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite gravity observations are now enabling closure of this equation by providing the terrestrial water storage change. Equations are presented here for estimating evapotranspiration using observation based information, taking into account the unique nature of GRACE observations. GRACE water storage changes are first substantiated by comparing with results from a land surface model and a combined atmospheric-terrestrial water budget approach. Evapotranspiration is then estimated for 14 time periods over the Mississippi River basin and compared with output from three modeling systems. The GRACE estimates generally lay in the middle of the models and may provide skill in evaluating modeled evapotranspiration.

The Numerical Spectral Model (NSM) extends from the ground into the thermosphere and incorporates Hines' Doppler Spread Parameterization for small-scale gravity waves (GWs). In the present version of the model we account for a tropospheric heat source in the zonal mean (m = 0), which reproduces qualitatively the observed zonal jets near the tropopause and the accompanying reversal in the latitudinal temperature variations. In the study presented here, we discuss the planetary waves (PWs) that are solely generated internally, i.e. without the explicit excitation sources related to tropospheric convection or topography. Our analysis shows that PWs are not produced when the zonally averaged heat source into the atmosphere is artificially suppressed, and that the PWs are generally weaker when the tropospheric source is not applied. Instabilities associated with the zonal mean temperature, pressure and wind fields, which still need to be explored, are exciting PWs that have amplitudes in the mesosphere comparable to those observed. Three classes of PWs are generated in the NSM. (1) Rossby type PWs, which slowly propagate westward relative to the mean zonal flow, are carried by the winds so that they appear (from the ground) to propagate, respectively, eastward and westward in the winter and summer hemispheres below 80 km. Depending on the zonal wave number and magnitudes of the zonal winds, and under the influence of the equatorial oscillations, these PWs typically have periods between 2 and 20 days. Their horizontal wind amplitudes can exceed 40 m/s in the lower mesosphere. (2) Rossby-gravity waves, which propagate westward at low latitudes and have periods around 2 days for zonal wave numbers m = 2 to 4. (3) Eastward propagating equatorial Kelvin waves, which are generated in the upper mesosphere with periods between 1 and 3 days depending on m. A survey of the PWs reveals that the largest wind amplitudes tend to occur below 80 km in the winter hemisphere; but above th

At high latitudes in the upper mesosphere, horizontal wind oscillations have been observed with periods around 10 h. Waves with such a period are generated in our Numerical Spectral Model (NSM), and they are identified as planetary-scale inertio gravity waves (IGW). These IGWs have periods between 9 and I I h and appear above 60 kin in the zonal mean (m=0), as well as in m=l to 4, propagating eastward and westward. Under the influence of the Coriolis force, the amplitudes of the waves propagating westward are larger at high latitudes than those propagating eastward. The waves grow in magnitude at least up to about 100 km and have vertical wavelengths around 25 km. Applying a running window of 15 days for spectral analysis, the amplitudes in the wind field are typically between 10 and 20 m/s and can reach 30m/s in the westward propagating component for m=1 at the poles. In the temperature perturbations, the wave amplitudes above 100 km are typically 5 K and as large as 10 K for m=0 at the poles. The IGWs are intermittent but reveal systematic seasonal variations, with the largest amplitudes occurring generally in late winter and spring. Numerical experiments show that such waves are also generated without excitation of the migrating tides. The amplitudes and periods then are similar, indicating that the tides are not essential to generate the waves. However, the seasonal variations without tides are significantly different, which leads to the conclusion that non linear interactions between the semidiurnal tide and planetary waves must contribute to the excitation of the IGWs. Directly or indirectly through the planetary waves, the IGWs are apparently excited by the instabilities that arise in the zonal mean circulation. When the solar heating is turned off for m=0, both the PWs and IGWs essentially disappear. That the IGWs and PWs have common roots in their excitation mechanism is also indicated by the striking similarity of their seasonal variations in the lower mes

The Numerical Spectral Model (NSM) extends from the ground into the thermosphere and incorporates Hines' Doppler Spread Parameterization for small-scale gravity waves (GWs). In the present version of the model we account for a tropospheric heat source in the zonal mean (m = 0), which reproduces qualitatively the observed zonal jets near the tropopause and the accompanying reversal in the latitudinal temperature variations. In the study presented here, we discuss the planetary waves (PWs) that are solely generated internally, i.e. without the explicit excitation sources related to tropospheric convection or topography. Our analysis shows that PWs are not produced when the zonally averaged heat source into the atmosphere is artificially suppressed, and that the PWs are generally weaker when the tropospheric source is not applied. Instabilities associated with the zonal mean temperature, pressure and wind fields, which still need to be explored, are exciting PWs that have amplitudes in the mesosphere comparable to those observed. Three classes of PWs are generated in the NSM. (1) Rossby type PWs, which slowly propagate westward relative to the mean zonal flow, are carried by the winds so that they appear (from the ground) to propagate, respectively, eastward and westward in the winter and summer hemispheres below 80 km. Depending on the zonal wave number and magnitudes of the zonal winds, and under the influence of the equatorial oscillations, these PWs typically have periods between 2 and 20 days. Their horizontal wind amplitudes can exceed 40 m/s in the lower mesosphere. (2) Rossby-gravity waves, which propagate westward at low latitudes and have periods around 2 days for zonal wave numbers m = 2 to 4. (3) Eastward propagating equatorial Kelvin waves, which are generated in the upper mesosphere with periods between 1 and 3 days depending on m. A survey of the PWs reveals that the largest wind amplitudes tend to occur below 80 km in the winter hemisphere; but above th

Evapotranspiration is integral to studies of the Earth system, yet it is difficult to measure on regional scales. One estimation technique is a terrestrial water budget, i.e., total precipitation minus the sum of evapotranspiration and net runoff equals the change in water storage. Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite gravity observations are now enabling closure of this equation by providing the terrestrial water storage change. Equations are presented here for estimating evapotranspiration using observation based information, taking into account the unique nature of GRACE observations. GRACE water storage changes are first substantiated by comparing with results from a land surface model and a combined atmospheric-terrestrial water budget approach. Evapotranspiration is then estimated for 14 time periods over the Mississippi River basin and compared with output from three modeling systems. The GRACE estimates generally lay in the middle of the models and may provide skill in evaluating modeled evapotranspiration.

At high latitudes in the upper mesosphere, horizontal wind oscillations have been observed with periods around 10 h. Waves with such a period are generated in our Numerical Spectral Model (NSM), and they are identified as planetary-scale inertio gravity waves (IGW). These IGWs have periods between 9 and I I h and appear above 60 kin in the zonal mean (m=0), as well as in m=l to 4, propagating eastward and westward. Under the influence of the Coriolis force, the amplitudes of the waves propagating westward are larger at high latitudes than those propagating eastward. The waves grow in magnitude at least up to about 100 km and have vertical wavelengths around 25 km. Applying a running window of 15 days for spectral analysis, the amplitudes in the wind field are typically between 10 and 20 m/s and can reach 30m/s in the westward propagating component for m=1 at the poles. In the temperature perturbations, the wave amplitudes above 100 km are typically 5 K and as large as 10 K for m=0 at the poles. The IGWs are intermittent but reveal systematic seasonal variations, with the largest amplitudes occurring generally in late winter and spring. Numerical experiments show that such waves are also generated without excitation of the migrating tides. The amplitudes and periods then are similar, indicating that the tides are not essential to generate the waves. However, the seasonal variations without tides are significantly different, which leads to the conclusion that non linear interactions between the semidiurnal tide and planetary waves must contribute to the excitation of the IGWs. Directly or indirectly through the planetary waves, the IGWs are apparently excited by the instabilities that arise in the zonal mean circulation. When the solar heating is turned off for m=0, both the PWs and IGWs essentially disappear. That the IGWs and PWs have common roots in their excitation mechanism is also indicated by the striking similarity of their seasonal variations in the lower mes

The Numerical Spectral Model (NSM) extends from the ground into the thermosphere and incorporates Hines' Doppler Spread Parameterization for small-scale gravity waves (GWs). In the present version of the model we account for a tropospheric heat source in the zonal mean (m = 0), which reproduces qualitatively the observed zonal jets near the tropopause and the accompanying reversal in the latitudinal temperature variations. In the study presented here, we discuss the planetary waves (PWs) that are solely generated internally, i.e. without the explicit excitation sources related to tropospheric convection or topography. Our analysis shows that PWs are not produced when the zonally averaged heat source into the atmosphere is artificially suppressed, and that the PWs are generally weaker when the tropospheric source is not applied. Instabilities associated with the zonal mean temperature, pressure and wind fields, which still need to be explored, are exciting PWs that have amplitudes in the mesosphere comparable to those observed. Three classes of PWs are generated in the NSM. (1) Rossby type PWs, which slowly propagate westward relative to the mean zonal flow, are carried by the winds so that they appear (from the ground) to propagate, respectively, eastward and westward in the winter and summer hemispheres below 80 km. Depending on the zonal wave number and magnitudes of the zonal winds, and under the influence of the equatorial oscillations, these PWs typically have periods between 2 and 20 days. Their horizontal wind amplitudes can exceed 40 m/s in the lower mesosphere. (2) Rossby-gravity waves, which propagate westward at low latitudes and have periods around 2 days for zonal wave numbers m = 2 to 4. (3) Eastward propagating equatorial Kelvin waves, which are generated in the upper mesosphere with periods between 1 and 3 days depending on m. A survey of the PWs reveals that the largest wind amplitudes tend to occur below 80 km in the winter hemisphere; but above th

The first consistent year (November 2000 to November 2001) of global albedo product was produced at 1-km resolution every 16 days from the observations of the Moderate- Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) instrument aboard NASA’s Terra spacecraft.We evaluated the quality of the operational albedo retrievals in two ways: (1) by examining the algorithm performance using the product quality assurance (QA) fields (this paper) and (2) by comparing retrieved albedos with those observed at ground stations and by other satellite instruments (in a companion paper). The internal diagnostics of the retrieval algorithm adequately reflect the goodness of the model fit and the random noise amplification in the retrieved albedo. Global QA statistics show that the RossThick- LiSparse-Reciprocal model fits the atmospherically corrected surface reflectances very well, and the random noise amplification factors for white sky albedo and reflectance are generally less than 1.0. Cloud obscuration is the main reason for the activation of the backup magnitude retrieval algorithm. Over the 60°S to 60°N latitude band, 50% of the land pixels acquire more than six clear looks during 14–29 September 2001, and only 5% of these pixels are inverted with the backup algorithm. The latitude dependence and temporal distribution of the QA fields further demonstrate that the retrieval status mainly follows the pattern of angular sampling determined by cloud climatology and the instrument/orbit characteristics. A case study over the west coast of the United States shows that white sky shortwave albedos retrieved from magnitude inversions agree on average with those from full inversions to within 0.033 in reflectance units and have a slightly lower bias ranging from 0.014 to 0.023. We also explored the effect of residual cloud and aerosol contamination in the atmospherically corrected surface reflectance inputs in another case study over southern Africa. The quality assurance procedure of the ope

The evaluation of the first available satellite-based global albedo product at 1-km resolution is essential for its application in climate studies. We evaluate the accuracy of the Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) albedo product using available field measurements at Surface Radiation Budget Network (SURFRAD) and Cloud and Radiation Testbed–Southern Great Plains (CART/SGP) stations and examine the consistency between the MODIS surface albedos and the Clouds and Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) top-of-the-atmosphere albedos as well as historical global albedos from advanced very high resolution radiometer (AVHRR) and Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) observations. A comparison with the field measurements shows that the MODIS surface albedo generally meets an absolute accuracy requirement of 0.02 for our study sites during April–September 2001, with the root mean square errors less than 0.018. Larger differences appear in the winter season probably due to the increased heterogeneity of surface reflectivity in the presence of snow. To examine the effect of spatial heterogeneity on the validation of the MODIS albedos using fine resolution field measurements, we derive an intermediate albedo product from four Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) images at 30-m spatial resolution as a surrogate for the distributed field measurements. The surface albedo is relatively homogeneous over the study stations in growing seasons, and therefore the validation during April–September is supported. A case study over three SURFRAD stations reveals that the MODIS bidirectional reflectance distribution function model is able to capture the solar zenith angle dependence of surface albedo as shown by the field measurements. We also find that the MODIS surface shortwave albedo is consistent with the contemporary and collocated CERES top-of atmosphere albedos derived directly from broadband observations. The MODIS albedo is also well correlated with his

A three‐dimensional chemical transport model is utilized to study the transport out of the Antarctic polar vortex during the southern hemisphere spring. On average, over five consecutive years between 1993 and 1997, horizontal transport out of the vortex into the midlatitude stratosphere is smaller than vertical transport into the troposphere. However, there is significant interannual variability in the magnitude of mass exchange, which is related to year‐to‐year fluctuations in planetary wave activity. In 1994 the net loss of the vortex tracer mass in September is similar to that in October. However, the relative mass flux entering the midlatitude stratosphere and the troposphere differ between the two months. The ratio of horizontal transport out of the vortex to vertical transport into the troposphere is about 3:7 in September and 5:5 in October, indicating the higher permeability of the vortex in October compared to September. The September mass flux into the troposphere is larger than in October, consistent with the fact that stronger diabatic cooling occurs in September than October over Antarctica. The estimated ozone change at southern midlatitudes due to the intrusion of ozone‐depleted air from high latitudes during September–October 1994 is about −0.44% per decade, which could contribute up to 10% of observed ozone decline at southern midlatitudes in spring. This amount is an underestimate of the dilution effect from high latitudes during the spring season, as it does not include the vortex breakup in late spring.

The four climatic cycles obtained from the Vostok ice core offer a unique opportunity to study the high-frequency paleoclimatic variability, i.e., on time scales smaller than 15 kyr. We focused our study on the deuterium (deltaD) and deuterium excess (d) records, which are proxies for local temperature and remote evaporation source temperature and hence give us access to spatial climatic variations. Spectral analyses of paleoclimatic records have shown that the last glacial period (110-15 kyr before present) is characterized by large and fast temperature oscillations. Examples of such variations in the Northern Hemisphere are the so-called Dansgaard-Oeschger oscillations and Heinrich events. At Vostok, these oscillations are also imprinted in the ice, with broadband periodicities between 5 and 8 kyr and between 1.4 and 1.8 kyr. Scenarios for this behavior have recently been developed and argued, as well as connections with the Northern Hemisphere. We now can investigate the stability of the fast spectral features in the previous ice ages recovered in the Vostok isotopic records. This allows us to document the different types of climatic behavior under glacial conditions and hence connect the fast variation statistics with the slower ones controlled by insolation and sea level change. Our results show that deltaD and d do have a distinct spectral behavior. We discuss the implications on the ocean circulation from such a difference.

We have analyzed 5 years of continuous Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements taken at Kellyville, just off the western margin of the ice sheet in southern Greenland. A fit to the vertical component gives a negative secular uplift rate of −5.8±1.0 mm/yr. A negative rate (i.e., a subsidence) is consistent with archeological and historical evidence that the surrounding region has been subsiding over the last 3 kyr. However, it is inconsistent with estimates of the Earth's continuing viscoelastic response to melting ice prior to 4 ka years ago, which predict that Kellyville should be uplifting, rather than subsiding, by 2.0±3.5 mm/yr. The resulting −7.8±3.6 mm/yr discrepancy is too large to be the result of loading from present-day changes in nearby ice. We show, instead, that it is consistent with independent suggestions that the western ice sheet margin in this region of Greenland may have advanced by ≈50 km during the past 3–4 kyr.

We have analyzed 5 years of continuous Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements taken at Kellyville, just off the western margin of the ice sheet in southern Greenland. A fit to the vertical component gives a negative secular uplift rate of −5.8±1.0 mm/yr. A negative rate (i.e., a subsidence) is consistent with archeological and historical evidence that the surrounding region has been subsiding over the last 3 kyr. However, it is inconsistent with estimates of the Earth's continuing viscoelastic response to melting ice prior to 4 ka years ago, which predict that Kellyville should be uplifting, rather than subsiding, by 2.0±3.5 mm/yr. The resulting −7.8±3.6 mm/yr discrepancy is too large to be the result of loading from present-day changes in nearby ice. We show, instead, that it is consistent with independent suggestions that the western ice sheet margin in this region of Greenland may have advanced by ≈50 km during the past 3–4 kyr.

We have analyzed 5 years of continuous Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements taken at Kellyville, just off the western margin of the ice sheet in southern Greenland. A fit to the vertical component gives a negative secular uplift rate of −5.8±1.0 mm/yr. A negative rate (i.e., a subsidence) is consistent with archeological and historical evidence that the surrounding region has been subsiding over the last 3 kyr. However, it is inconsistent with estimates of the Earth's continuing viscoelastic response to melting ice prior to 4 ka years ago, which predict that Kellyville should be uplifting, rather than subsiding, by 2.0±3.5 mm/yr. The resulting −7.8±3.6 mm/yr discrepancy is too large to be the result of loading from present-day changes in nearby ice. We show, instead, that it is consistent with independent suggestions that the western ice sheet margin in this region of Greenland may have advanced by ≈50 km during the past 3–4 kyr.

The four climatic cycles obtained from the Vostok ice core offer a unique opportunity to study the high-frequency paleoclimatic variability, i.e., on time scales smaller than 15 kyr. We focused our study on the deuterium (deltaD) and deuterium excess (d) records, which are proxies for local temperature and remote evaporation source temperature and hence give us access to spatial climatic variations. Spectral analyses of paleoclimatic records have shown that the last glacial period (110-15 kyr before present) is characterized by large and fast temperature oscillations. Examples of such variations in the Northern Hemisphere are the so-called Dansgaard-Oeschger oscillations and Heinrich events. At Vostok, these oscillations are also imprinted in the ice, with broadband periodicities between 5 and 8 kyr and between 1.4 and 1.8 kyr. Scenarios for this behavior have recently been developed and argued, as well as connections with the Northern Hemisphere. We now can investigate the stability of the fast spectral features in the previous ice ages recovered in the Vostok isotopic records. This allows us to document the different types of climatic behavior under glacial conditions and hence connect the fast variation statistics with the slower ones controlled by insolation and sea level change. Our results show that deltaD and d do have a distinct spectral behavior. We discuss the implications on the ocean circulation from such a difference.

The four climatic cycles obtained from the Vostok ice core offer a unique opportunity to study the high-frequency paleoclimatic variability, i.e., on time scales smaller than 15 kyr. We focused our study on the deuterium (deltaD) and deuterium excess (d) records, which are proxies for local temperature and remote evaporation source temperature and hence give us access to spatial climatic variations. Spectral analyses of paleoclimatic records have shown that the last glacial period (110-15 kyr before present) is characterized by large and fast temperature oscillations. Examples of such variations in the Northern Hemisphere are the so-called Dansgaard-Oeschger oscillations and Heinrich events. At Vostok, these oscillations are also imprinted in the ice, with broadband periodicities between 5 and 8 kyr and between 1.4 and 1.8 kyr. Scenarios for this behavior have recently been developed and argued, as well as connections with the Northern Hemisphere. We now can investigate the stability of the fast spectral features in the previous ice ages recovered in the Vostok isotopic records. This allows us to document the different types of climatic behavior under glacial conditions and hence connect the fast variation statistics with the slower ones controlled by insolation and sea level change. Our results show that deltaD and d do have a distinct spectral behavior. We discuss the implications on the ocean circulation from such a difference.

This paper documents, by a detailed isotopic and gas composition study of the basal ice from the Dye 3 core, a large degree of flow-induced mixing at the ice sheet base. This mixing results most probably from circular motion in troughs of bedrock undulations and flow separations with some entrainment of the underlying ice. The measured distribution of isotopes and gases in the basal ice is the consequence of successive mixing events having occurred upglacier from the site in an area of very rough bedrock topography. The deformation produced makes it possible for the basal part of the ice sheet to cross the subglacial valley existing in the Dye 3 area., SCOPUS: ar.j, FLWIN, info:eu-repo/semantics/published

This paper documents, by a detailed isotopic and gas composition study of the basal ice from the Dye 3 core, a large degree of flow-induced mixing at the ice sheet base. This mixing results most probably from circular motion in troughs of bedrock undulations and flow separations with some entrainment of the underlying ice. The measured distribution of isotopes and gases in the basal ice is the consequence of successive mixing events having occurred upglacier from the site in an area of very rough bedrock topography. The deformation produced makes it possible for the basal part of the ice sheet to cross the subglacial valley existing in the Dye 3 area., SCOPUS: ar.j, FLWIN, info:eu-repo/semantics/published

Winds and convective mixing from a general circulation model of the atmosphere have been applied in a chemical tracer model (CTM) to simulate the global distribution and temporal variability of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The seasonal cycle in moist convection, with maximum activity over continents in summer, leads to an annual cycle in the surface concentration of CFCs. Emissions are retained in the lowest levels of the atmosphere during winter, and surface concentrations peak near sources. In this season, CFCs from European sources are carried by low-level winds into the Arctic. During summer, vertical exchange is more efficient, and pollutants are transported more rapidly to the middle atmosphere. Consequently, concentrations of CFCs during summer are relatively low near the surface and elevated in the middle troposphere. Time series analysis of data from Adrigole, Ireland, indicates that the model accurately simulates long-range transport of air pollution. The model reproduces global distributions and trends for CFC-11 and CFC-12 observed by the ALE experiment; however, subgrid diffusion must be introduced into the model in order to reproduce the observed interhemispheric gradient. Interhemispheric exchange occurs mainly in the upper tropical troposphere, producing a profile which increases with altitude in the southern hemisphere, in agreement with observations. The distribution of CFCs is such that it is necessary to apply important corrections to observations at surface stations in order to derive global distributions.

A three-dimensional chemical tracer model for the troposphere is used to simulate the global distribution of 85Kr, a long-lived radioisotope released at northern mid-latitudes by nuclear industry. Simulated distributions for the period 1980–1983 are in excellent agreement with data from six latitudinal profiles measured over the Atlantic. High concentrations of 85Kr are predicted over the Arctic in winter, advected from European sources, and somewhat smaller enhancements arising from the same sources are predicted over the tropical Atlantic in summer. Latitudinal gradients are steepest in the northern tropics, with distinctly different seasonal variations over the Pacific, as compared to the Atlantic. The global inventory of 85Kr is reconstructed for the period 1980–1983 by combining the concentrations measured over the Atlantic with the global distributions predicted by the model. The magnitude of the Soviet source is derived. The interhemispheric exchange time is calculated as 1.1 years, with little seasonal dependence.

A three-dimensional chemical tracer model for the troposphere is used to simulate the global distribution of 85Kr, a long-lived radioisotope released at northern mid-latitudes by nuclear industry. Simulated distributions for the period 1980–1983 are in excellent agreement with data from six latitudinal profiles measured over the Atlantic. High concentrations of 85Kr are predicted over the Arctic in winter, advected from European sources, and somewhat smaller enhancements arising from the same sources are predicted over the tropical Atlantic in summer. Latitudinal gradients are steepest in the northern tropics, with distinctly different seasonal variations over the Pacific, as compared to the Atlantic. The global inventory of 85Kr is reconstructed for the period 1980–1983 by combining the concentrations measured over the Atlantic with the global distributions predicted by the model. The magnitude of the Soviet source is derived. The interhemispheric exchange time is calculated as 1.1 years, with little seasonal dependence.

Winds and convective mixing from a general circulation model of the atmosphere have been applied in a chemical tracer model (CTM) to simulate the global distribution and temporal variability of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The seasonal cycle in moist convection, with maximum activity over continents in summer, leads to an annual cycle in the surface concentration of CFCs. Emissions are retained in the lowest levels of the atmosphere during winter, and surface concentrations peak near sources. In this season, CFCs from European sources are carried by low-level winds into the Arctic. During summer, vertical exchange is more efficient, and pollutants are transported more rapidly to the middle atmosphere. Consequently, concentrations of CFCs during summer are relatively low near the surface and elevated in the middle troposphere. Time series analysis of data from Adrigole, Ireland, indicates that the model accurately simulates long-range transport of air pollution. The model reproduces global distributions and trends for CFC-11 and CFC-12 observed by the ALE experiment; however, subgrid diffusion must be introduced into the model in order to reproduce the observed interhemispheric gradient. Interhemispheric exchange occurs mainly in the upper tropical troposphere, producing a profile which increases with altitude in the southern hemisphere, in agreement with observations. The distribution of CFCs is such that it is necessary to apply important corrections to observations at surface stations in order to derive global distributions.