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Climate warming is causing changes in the physics of deep lakes, such as longer summer stratification, increased water column stability, reduced ice cover, and a shallower depth of winter overturns. An ultimate consequence of warming would be a transition to a different mixing regime. Here we investigate the role of physical, chemical, and biological feedback mechanisms that unfold during a shift in mixing regime, and whether these feedbacks could prompt and stabilise the new regime. Although climate, interannual temperature variation, and lake morphometry are the main determinants of a mixing regime, when climate change causes shifts in mixing regime, internal feedback mechanisms may gain in importance and modify lake ecosystem functioning. We review the role of these feedbacks in three mixing regime shifts: from polymictic to seasonally stratified, from dimictic to monomictic, and from holomictic to oligomictic or meromictic. Polymictic lakes of intermediate depth (c. 3–10 m mean depth) could experience seasonal stratification if a stratification event triggers phytoplankton blooms or dissolved organic matter release, reducing transparency and therefore further heating the surface layer. However, this feedback is only likely to have influence in small and clear lakes, it would be easily disturbed by weather conditions, and the resulting stratified state does not remain stable in the long term, as stratification is lost in winter. The ice-albedo feedback might cause an accelerated shift from ice-covered (dimictic) to ice-free (monomictic) winters in sufficiently deep (mean depth 50 m or more) lakes, where temperature memory is carried over from one winter to the next. Nevertheless, there is an ongoing debate into whether this process can persist during natural weather variations and overcome self-stabilising mechanisms such as thermal insulation by snow. The majority of studies suggest that a gradual transition from dimictic to monomictic is more likely than an abr

Climate warming is causing changes in the physics of deep lakes, such as longer summer stratification, increased water column stability, reduced ice cover, and a shallower depth of winter overturns. An ultimate consequence of warming would be a transition to a different mixing regime. Here we investigate the role of physical, chemical, and biological feedback mechanisms that unfold during a shift in mixing regime, and whether these feedbacks could prompt and stabilise the new regime. Although climate, interannual temperature variation, and lake morphometry are the main determinants of a mixing regime, when climate change causes shifts in mixing regime, internal feedback mechanisms may gain in importance and modify lake ecosystem functioning. We review the role of these feedbacks in three mixing regime shifts: from polymictic to seasonally stratified, from dimictic to monomictic, and from holomictic to oligomictic or meromictic. Polymictic lakes of intermediate depth (c. 3–10 m mean depth) could experience seasonal stratification if a stratification event triggers phytoplankton blooms or dissolved organic matter release, reducing transparency and therefore further heating the surface layer. However, this feedback is only likely to have influence in small and clear lakes, it would be easily disturbed by weather conditions, and the resulting stratified state does not remain stable in the long term, as stratification is lost in winter. The ice-albedo feedback might cause an accelerated shift from ice-covered (dimictic) to ice-free (monomictic) winters in sufficiently deep (mean depth 50 m or more) lakes, where temperature memory is carried over from one winter to the next. Nevertheless, there is an ongoing debate into whether this process can persist during natural weather variations and overcome self-stabilising mechanisms such as thermal insulation by snow. The majority of studies suggest that a gradual transition from dimictic to monomictic is more likely than an abr

Climate warming is causing changes in the physics of deep lakes, such as longer summer stratification, increased water column stability, reduced ice cover, and a shallower depth of winter overturns. An ultimate consequence of warming would be a transition to a different mixing regime. Here we investigate the role of physical, chemical, and biological feedback mechanisms that unfold during a shift in mixing regime, and whether these feedbacks could prompt and stabilise the new regime. Although climate, interannual temperature variation, and lake morphometry are the main determinants of a mixing regime, when climate change causes shifts in mixing regime, internal feedback mechanisms may gain in importance and modify lake ecosystem functioning. We review the role of these feedbacks in three mixing regime shifts: from polymictic to seasonally stratified, from dimictic to monomictic, and from holomictic to oligomictic or meromictic. Polymictic lakes of intermediate depth (c. 3–10 m mean depth) could experience seasonal stratification if a stratification event triggers phytoplankton blooms or dissolved organic matter release, reducing transparency and therefore further heating the surface layer. However, this feedback is only likely to have influence in small and clear lakes, it would be easily disturbed by weather conditions, and the resulting stratified state does not remain stable in the long term, as stratification is lost in winter. The ice-albedo feedback might cause an accelerated shift from ice-covered (dimictic) to ice-free (monomictic) winters in sufficiently deep (mean depth 50 m or more) lakes, where temperature memory is carried over from one winter to the next. Nevertheless, there is an ongoing debate into whether this process can persist during natural weather variations and overcome self-stabilising mechanisms such as thermal insulation by snow. The majority of studies suggest that a gradual transition from dimictic to monomictic is more likely than an abr

Climate warming is causing changes in the physics of deep lakes, such as longer summer stratification, increased water column stability, reduced ice cover, and a shallower depth of winter overturns. An ultimate consequence of warming would be a transition to a different mixing regime. Here we investigate the role of physical, chemical, and biological feedback mechanisms that unfold during a shift in mixing regime, and whether these feedbacks could prompt and stabilise the new regime. Although climate, interannual temperature variation, and lake morphometry are the main determinants of a mixing regime, when climate change causes shifts in mixing regime, internal feedback mechanisms may gain in importance and modify lake ecosystem functioning. We review the role of these feedbacks in three mixing regime shifts: from polymictic to seasonally stratified, from dimictic to monomictic, and from holomictic to oligomictic or meromictic. Polymictic lakes of intermediate depth (c. 3–10 m mean depth) could experience seasonal stratification if a stratification event triggers phytoplankton blooms or dissolved organic matter release, reducing transparency and therefore further heating the surface layer. However, this feedback is only likely to have influence in small and clear lakes, it would be easily disturbed by weather conditions, and the resulting stratified state does not remain stable in the long term, as stratification is lost in winter. The ice-albedo feedback might cause an accelerated shift from ice-covered (dimictic) to ice-free (monomictic) winters in sufficiently deep (mean depth 50 m or more) lakes, where temperature memory is carried over from one winter to the next. Nevertheless, there is an ongoing debate into whether this process can persist during natural weather variations and overcome self-stabilising mechanisms such as thermal insulation by snow. The majority of studies suggest that a gradual transition from dimictic to monomictic is more likely than an abr

Climate warming is causing changes in the physics of deep lakes, such as longer summer stratification, increased water column stability, reduced ice cover, and a shallower depth of winter overturns. An ultimate consequence of warming would be a transition to a different mixing regime. Here we investigate the role of physical, chemical, and biological feedback mechanisms that unfold during a shift in mixing regime, and whether these feedbacks could prompt and stabilise the new regime. Although climate, interannual temperature variation, and lake morphometry are the main determinants of a mixing regime, when climate change causes shifts in mixing regime, internal feedback mechanisms may gain in importance and modify lake ecosystem functioning. We review the role of these feedbacks in three mixing regime shifts: from polymictic to seasonally stratified, from dimictic to monomictic, and from holomictic to oligomictic or meromictic. Polymictic lakes of intermediate depth (c. 3–10 m mean depth) could experience seasonal stratification if a stratification event triggers phytoplankton blooms or dissolved organic matter release, reducing transparency and therefore further heating the surface layer. However, this feedback is only likely to have influence in small and clear lakes, it would be easily disturbed by weather conditions, and the resulting stratified state does not remain stable in the long term, as stratification is lost in winter. The ice-albedo feedback might cause an accelerated shift from ice-covered (dimictic) to ice-free (monomictic) winters in sufficiently deep (mean depth 50 m or more) lakes, where temperature memory is carried over from one winter to the next. Nevertheless, there is an ongoing debate into whether this process can persist during natural weather variations and overcome self-stabilising mechanisms such as thermal insulation by snow. The majority of studies suggest that a gradual transition from dimictic to monomictic is more likely than an abr

Saline-alkaline lakes of the East African Rift are known to have an extremely high primary production supporting a potent carbon cycle. To date, a full description of carbon pools in these lakes is still missing. More specifically, there is not detailed information on the quality of dissolved organic matter (DOM), the main carbon energy source for heterotrophs prokaryotes. We report the first exhaustive description of DOM molecular properties in the water column of a meromictic saline-alkaline lake of the East African Rift. DOM availability, fate and origin were studied either quantitatively, in terms of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and nitrogen (DON) or qualitatively, in terms of optical properties (absorbance) and molecular characterization of solid-phase extracted DOM (SPE-DOM) through negative electrospray ionization Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR-MS). DOM availability was high (DOC ∼ 8.1 mM in surface waters) and meromixis imprinted a severe quantitative and qualitative change on DOM pool. At the surface, DOM was rich in aliphatic and moderately in aromatic molecules and thus mirroring autochthonous microbial production together with photodegradation. At the bottom changes were extreme: DOC increased up to 5 times (up to 50 mM) and, molecular signature drifted to saturated, reduced and non-aromatic DOM suggesting intense microbial activity within organic sediments. At the chemocline, DOC was retained indicating that this interface is a highly reactive layer in terms of DOM processing. These findings underline that saline-alkaline lakes of the East African Rift are carbon processing hot spots and their investigation may broaden our understanding of carbon cycling in inland waters at large.

In Quaternary paleosciences, the rationale behind analogical inference presupposes that former processes can be explained by causes operating now, although their intensity and rates can vary through time. In this paper we synthesised the results of di erent modern analogue studies performed in a varved lake. We discuss their potential value to obtain best results from high resolution past records. Di erent biogeochemical contemporary processes revealed seasonality and year-to-year variability, e.g., calcite precipitation, lake oxygenation, production and deposition of pollen and phytoplankton growth. Fingerprints of the first two of these processes were clearly evidenced in the varve-sublayers and allow understanding related to past events. Pollen studies suggested the possibility of identifying and characterizing seasonal layers even in the absence of varves. Marker pigments in the water column were tightly associated with phytoplankton groups living today; most of them were identified in the sediment record as well. We observed that 50% of these marker pigments were destroyed between deposition and permanent burying. In another study, seasonality in the production/distribution of branched glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers (brGDGTs) and derived temperature estimates were investigated in catchment soils and particles settling in the lake. The signatures of brGDGTs in depositional environments mainly were representative of stable conditions of soils in the catchment that last over decades; no brGDGTs seemed to be produced within the lake. The main contribution of this review is to show the advantages and limitations of a multiproxy modern-analogue approach in Lake Montcortès as a case study and proposing new working hypotheses for future research.

© 2017 Recent expansion of anoxia has become a global issue and there is potential for worsening under global warming. At the same time, obtaining proper long-term instrumental oxygen records is difficult, thus reducing the possibility of recording long-term changes in oxygen shifts that can be related with climate or human influence. Varved lake sediments provide the better time frame to study this phenomenon at high resolution. We tracked the oxic/anoxic shifts of the varved Lake Montcortès since 1500 CE, and tried to recognise anthropogenic and climatic influences combining biological and geochemical proxies. Four main scenarios emerged: 1) years with abrupt sediment inputs (A); 2) years with outstanding mixing and oxygenation of the water column (B); 3) years with strong stratification, anoxia, intense sulfur bacterial activity and increased biomass production (C); 4) years with stratification and anoxia, but relatively less biomass production (D). In line with current limnologic trends, high supra-annual variability in the occurrence of oxygenation events was observed. Interestingly, at least 45.3% of the years were mixing years and, like the meromictic ones, were mostly clustered into groups of consecutive years, thus alternating years of monomixis with years of meromixis. Most years of D belong to the period 1500–1820 CE, when human activities were the most intense. Most years of A belonged to the climatic unstable period of 1850–1899 CE. Years of B were irregularly distributed but were best represented in the period 1820–1849 CE. Most years of C belonged to the 20th century. More than 90% of the years with climatic instrumental records belonged to B and C. Current climate warming seems to be taking control over the oxygenation capacity of the lake, especially si

Reliable gas measurements from supersaturated deep waters still remain a challenge. However, good information is mandatory to investigate the limnic carbon cycle, assess the endangerment through limnic eruptions and evaluate a potential source of exploitable energy. We addressed these three points in a heavily polluted mine pit lake in Germany. We quantified the ebullition of methane from deep waters and the sediment below. Exposed to continuous percolation of gas bubbles, the deep (monimolimnetic) water had accumulated high concentrations of gas: directly measured gas pressures indicated the proximity to spontaneous ebullition. Consequently, the possibility of a limnic eruption was assessed by initiating a self-sustained flow through a vertical pipe. Despite the high gas pressures, the flow was slow and the endangerment was considered low. A sampling strategy with bags was developed to achieve a reliable measurement of gas content and gas composition in the monimolimnion. As a result, directly measured gas pressures could be confirmed and were nearly exclusively attributed to methane and nitrogen. Contrary to lakes that had shown limnic eruptions, carbon dioxide played a much subordinate role, and hence the driving force for a violent outburst of gases was missing. Nevertheless the amount of dissolved methane was remarkably high. This investigation closes with some estimates of the commercial value of the deposit and limiting conditions for a possible exploitation.

Recent expansion of anoxia has becomea global issue and there is potential forworsening under global warming. At the same time, obtaining proper long-term instrumental oxygen records is difficult, thus reducing the possibility of recording long-term changes in oxygen shifts that can be related with climate or human influence. Varved lake sediments provide the better time frame to study this phenomenon at high resolution. We tracked the oxic/anoxic shifts of the varved LakeMontcortès since 1500 CE, and tried to recognise anthropogenic and climatic influences combining biological and geochemical proxies. Four main scenarios emerged: 1) years with abrupt sediment inputs (A); 2) years with outstanding mixing and oxygenation of the water column (B); 3) years with strong stratification, anoxia, intense sulfur bacterial activity and increased biomass production (C); 4) yearswith stratification and anoxia, but relatively less biomass production (D). In line with current limnologic trends, high supra-annual variability in the occurrence of oxygenation events was observed. Interestingly, at least 45.3% of the years were mixing years and, like the meromictic ones, were mostly clustered into groups of consecutive years, thus alternating years of monomixis with years of meromixis. Most years of D belong to the period 1500–1820 CE, when human activities were the most intense. Most years of A belonged to the climatic unstable period of 1850–1899 CE. Years of B were irregularly distributed but were best represented in the period 1820–1849 CE.Most years of C belonged to the 20th century. More than 90% of the years with climatic instrumental records belonged to B and C. Current climate warming seems to be taking control over the oxygenation capacity of the lake, especially since the second half of the 20th century. Our results support recent findings related to hypoxia spreading at the global scale.

The term “meromixis” means that a lake contains a chemically different, deep water layer due toincomplete mixing over the year. Ten years ago, Boehrer and Schultze (2006) discussed the relevanceof meromixis for pit lakes. More than 100 papers have been published on meromixis in pit lakes since2006, suggesting an update.Newly published papers have dealt with the interaction of underground workings and ground-waterwithin meromictic pit lakes, double diffusion and erosion of the chemocline, climatic influences onmeromixis, biogeochemical processes and microbial ecology in the water column and sediments, andpredictive modelling. Results of the monitoring of meromictic pit lakes improved the understanding ofprocesses and allowed in some cases to prove results of earlier modeling. Experiences with themanagement of meromictic pit lakes were also published.Meromixis is not the common mixing regime in pit lakes. However, meromixis seems to occur morefrequently in pit lakes than in natural lakes due to the shape of the basin of pit lakes and the occurrenceof chemically different waters in the catchment of many pit lakes. Therefore, and because of theparticular chances and risks related to meromixis, it is of particular relevance in pit lakes. Based on thefindings of the last ten years, predictive modeling of future pit lakes and the management of existingmeromictic pit lakes can be made much better today.This contribution gives a brief introduction to the phenomenon of meromixis in pit lakes, summarizesthe findings from the last ten years and draws conclusions regarding the management and predictivemodeling of meromixis in pit lakes.

The term “meromixis” means that a lake contains a chemically different, deep water layer due toincomplete mixing over the year. Ten years ago, Boehrer and Schultze (2006) discussed the relevanceof meromixis for pit lakes. More than 100 papers have been published on meromixis in pit lakes since2006, suggesting an update.Newly published papers have dealt with the interaction of underground workings and ground-waterwithin meromictic pit lakes, double diffusion and erosion of the chemocline, climatic influences onmeromixis, biogeochemical processes and microbial ecology in the water column and sediments, andpredictive modelling. Results of the monitoring of meromictic pit lakes improved the understanding ofprocesses and allowed in some cases to prove results of earlier modeling. Experiences with themanagement of meromictic pit lakes were also published.Meromixis is not the common mixing regime in pit lakes. However, meromixis seems to occur morefrequently in pit lakes than in natural lakes due to the shape of the basin of pit lakes and the occurrenceof chemically different waters in the catchment of many pit lakes. Therefore, and because of theparticular chances and risks related to meromixis, it is of particular relevance in pit lakes. Based on thefindings of the last ten years, predictive modeling of future pit lakes and the management of existingmeromictic pit lakes can be made much better today.This contribution gives a brief introduction to the phenomenon of meromixis in pit lakes, summarizesthe findings from the last ten years and draws conclusions regarding the management and predictivemodeling of meromixis in pit lakes.

[EN] Banyoles is the largest and deepest lake of karstic-tectonic origin in the Iberian Peninsula. The lake comprises several circular sub-basins characterized by different oxygenation conditions at their hypolimnions.The multiproxy analysis of a > 5 m long sediment core combined with high resolution seismic stratigraphy (3.5 kHz pinger and multi-frequency Chirp surveys), allow a precise reconstruction of the evolution of a karstic depression (named B3) until present times. Local meromictic conditions in this sub-basin have been conducive to deposition and preservation of ca. 85 cm of varved sediments since the late 19th century. The onset of these conditions is likely related to lake waters eutrophication caused by increasing farming activities in the watershed. Increasing clastic input and organic productivity during the second half of the 20th century have also been recorded within the laminated sediments, revealing an intensification of human impact and warmer water temperatures., [ES] Banyoles es el lago con origen kárstico-tectónico más extenso y profundo en la Península Ibérica. El lago incluye varias subcuencas circulares caracterizadas por diferentes condiciones de oxigenación en sus hipolimnions. El análisis multidisciplinar de un testigo de sondeo de más de 5 m de longitud combinado con sísmica de alta resolución (pinger de 3,5 kHz y Chirp multifrecuencia) permiten reconstruir de forma precisa la evolución de esta depresión kárstica (llamada B3) hasta la actualidad. Las condiciones locales de meromixis en esta cubeta han dado lugar al depósito y preservación de ~ 85 cm de sedimentos varvados desde finales del siglo XIX. El comienzo de estas condiciones está relacionado, probablemente, con la eutrofización de las aguas del lago causada por el aumento de las prácticas agrícolas en la cuenca. Durante la segunda mitad del siglo XX se han registrado también un aumento del aporte detrítico y de la productividad orgánica dentro de estos sedimentos laminados, que revelan una intensificación del impacto humano y un aumento de la temperatura de las aguas.

Salinity stratification has been documented in two meromictic lakes in detail. We present seven years of field data on the salinity stratification of meromictic lakes Wallendorfer See and Rassnitzer See forming in the pits of the former lignite mine Merseburg-Ost in the Central German Mining District. Mainly from groundwater inflows, salinity stratified meromictic residual lakes had formed before freshwater was introduced intentionally over a period of two years to fill the pits more rapidly close to the final water level. From the observations, changes in the salinity stratification were interpreted in terms of deposited potential energy. Freshwater introduction (capping) was quantified in terms of potential energy. Thus the evolution of the salinity profiles was explained and their residual shapes became understandable as a consequence of the flooding procedure. Based on the quantitative estimates of energy deposited in the stratification during deep recirculation in winter, prospective statements could be made about the further evolution of the monimolimnia.

Density differences are the key parameter for stratification stability. We used data from the iron-meromictic Waldsee, Germany, a lignite mine pit lake, to quantify the contribution of single solutes to water density and analyzed the density gradient. Iron meromictic lakes maintain their density gradient through chemical reactions. Hence, quantifying the contributions of separate solutes is essential for understanding the entire process. Based on solute concentrations and literature values of partial molal volumes, substance specific density contributions were quantitatively evaluated. Then, by direct measurements of the density of IHSS Waskish peat fulvic acid, we quantified the density contribution of dissolved organic carbon (DOC). While several solutes contributed to the density throughout the water column, only those substances that occurred at higher concentrations in the anoxic monimolimnion than in the oxic mixolimnion were crucial to sustaining the density difference between the two layers. In Waldsee, the density difference between monimolimnion and mixolimnion was attributed to dissolved Fe2+ (0.23 g/L, resulting in a 45 % of the density difference due to solutes) and to the carbonate system (HCO3 −, about 0.16 g/L and CO2, 0.03 g/L) while Ca2+ and DOC delivered only a small contribution. In summer, total density differences were dominated by temperature differences; during winter, solutes sustained meromixis. Finally, we present a complete list of specific density fractions for basically all of the density-relevant substances in fresh waters. Dichteunterschiede sind der wichtigste Faktor für die Stabilität von Schichtungen in Seen. Wir verwendeten Daten des eisenmeromiktischen Waldsees, eines Braunkohletagebausees, um den Beitrag einzelner gelöster Stoffe zur Dichte des Wassers sowie deren Beitrag zum Dichtegradienten zu bestimmen. In eisenmeromiktischen Seen wird der Dichtegradient durch interne chemische Reaktionen a

Microbial activity, abundance and biomass, and biogeochemical cycling of iron, sulphur and carbon were studied in the extremely acidic (pH 2.5–4.3), meromictic, nutrient-rich pit lake Cueva de la Mora in Spain. The goal was to find out (1) if the relatively high nutrient content influenced plankton abundance in the water column and alkalinity-producing microbial processes in the sediments compared to other acid pit lakes, and (2) if sediments in the shallow, mixed and the deep, stagnant parts of the lake exhibited differences in microbial activities and geochemical sediment composition related to meromixis. We hypothesised that redox cycling was more intense in the mixed part and higher amounts of reduced components would accumulate in the stagnant part. Especially phytoplankton biomass, CO2 production, and sulphate reduction were indeed higher than reported from typical acid pit lakes and were rather within the range of neutral or weakly acidic lakes, which can be attributed to the relatively high nutrient contents of Cueva de la Mora. Even in the monimolimnion, anaerobic processes occurred mainly in the sediments. Sediments from the mixed and stagnant parts of the lake differed markedly in their biogeochemistry. Mixolimnetic sediments showed high iron and sulphate reduction rates, and they appeared to undergo substantial recycling, as supported by reactive Fe, relation between gross sulphate reduction rate and net accumulation of reduced sulphur, and viable counts of iron and sulphur bacteria. Monimolimnetic sediments exhibited lower anaerobic microbial activities, and surprisingly they accumulated more Fe(II) than mixolimnetic sediments, but less reduced sulphur and carbon. This might be explained by a strong separation of the two water bodies, resulting in comparably less input of energy (light) and allochthonous matter into the monimolimnion. Regarding the total extent of alkalinity-generating microbial processes, their net effect is not sufficient to

Microbial activity, abundance and biomass, and biogeochemical cycling of iron, sulphur and carbon were studied in the extremely acidic (pH 2.5–4.3), meromictic, nutrient-rich pit lake Cueva de la Mora in Spain. The goal was to find out (1) if the relatively high nutrient content influenced plankton abundance in the water column and alkalinity-producing microbial processes in the sediments compared to other acid pit lakes, and (2) if sediments in the shallow, mixed and the deep, stagnant parts of the lake exhibited differences in microbial activities and geochemical sediment composition related to meromixis. We hypothesised that redox cycling was more intense in the mixed part and higher amounts of reduced components would accumulate in the stagnant part. Especially phytoplankton biomass, CO2 production, and sulphate reduction were indeed higher than reported from typical acid pit lakes and were rather within the range of neutral or weakly acidic lakes, which can be attributed to the relatively high nutrient contents of Cueva de la Mora. Even in the monimolimnion, anaerobic processes occurred mainly in the sediments. Sediments from the mixed and stagnant parts of the lake differed markedly in their biogeochemistry. Mixolimnetic sediments showed high iron and sulphate reduction rates, and they appeared to undergo substantial recycling, as supported by reactive Fe, relation between gross sulphate reduction rate and net accumulation of reduced sulphur, and viable counts of iron and sulphur bacteria. Monimolimnetic sediments exhibited lower anaerobic microbial activities, and surprisingly they accumulated more Fe(II) than mixolimnetic sediments, but less reduced sulphur and carbon. This might be explained by a strong separation of the two water bodies, resulting in comparably less input of energy (light) and allochthonous matter into the monimolimnion. Regarding the total extent of alkalinity-generating microbial processes, their net effect is not sufficient to neutralis

Microbial activity, abundance and biomass, and biogeochemical cycling of iron, sulphur and carbon were studied in the extremely acidic (pH 2.5–4.3), meromictic, nutrient-rich pit lake Cueva de la Mora in Spain. The goal was to find out (1) if the relatively high nutrient content influenced plankton abundance in the water column and alkalinity-producing microbial processes in the sediments compared to other acid pit lakes, and (2) if sediments in the shallow, mixed and the deep, stagnant parts of the lake exhibited differences in microbial activities and geochemical sediment composition related to meromixis. We hypothesised that redox cycling was more intense in the mixed part and higher amounts of reduced components would accumulate in the stagnant part. Especially phytoplankton biomass, CO2 production, and sulphate reduction were indeed higher than reported from typical acid pit lakes and were rather within the range of neutral or weakly acidic lakes, which can be attributed to the relatively high nutrient contents of Cueva de la Mora. Even in the monimolimnion, anaerobic processes occurred mainly in the sediments. Sediments from the mixed and stagnant parts of the lake differed markedly in their biogeochemistry. Mixolimnetic sediments showed high iron and sulphate reduction rates, and they appeared to undergo substantial recycling, as supported by reactive Fe, relation between gross sulphate reduction rate and net accumulation of reduced sulphur, and viable counts of iron and sulphur bacteria. Monimolimnetic sediments exhibited lower anaerobic microbial activities, and surprisingly they accumulated more Fe(II) than mixolimnetic sediments, but less reduced sulphur and carbon. This might be explained by a strong separation of the two water bodies, resulting in comparably less input of energy (light) and allochthonous matter into the monimolimnion. Regarding the total extent of alkalinity-generating microbial processes, their net effect is not sufficient to neutralis

During the middle and late Holocene, the Iberian Peninsula underwent large climatic and hydrologic changes, but the temporal resolution and regional distribution of available palaeoenvironmental records is still insufficient for a comprehensive assessment of the regional variability. The high sedimentation rate in karstic, meromictic Montcortès Lake (Catalan pre-Pyrenees) allows for a detailed reconstruction of the regional palaeoecology over the last 5,340 years using diatom analysis, aquatic pollen, sedimentological data, and historic documentary records. Results show marked fluctuations in diatom species assemblage composition, mainly between dominant Cyclotella taxa and small Fragilariales. We suggest that the conspicuous alternation between Cyclotella comta and C. cyclopuncta reflects changes in trophic state, while the succession of centric and pennate species most likely reflects changes in the hydrology of the lake. The diatom assemblages were used to identify six main phases: (1) high productivity and likely lower lake levels before 2350 BC, (2) lower lake levels and a strong arid phase between 2350 and 1850 BC, (3) lake level increase between 1850 and 850 BC, (4) relatively high lake level with fluctuating conditions during the Iberian and Roman Epochs (650 BC–350 AD), (5) lower lake levels,unfavourable conditions for diatom preservation, eutrophication and erosion triggered by increased human activities in the watershed during the Medieval Climate Anomaly (900–1300 AD), and (6) relatively higher lake levels during the LIA (1380–1850 AD) and afterwards. The combined study of diatoms, algae and pollen provides a detailed reconstruction of past climate, which refines understanding of regional environmental variability and interactions between climate and socio-economic conditions in the Pyrenees.

Many general mass-balance models that simulate processes in one or two water layers have been successfully constructed, tested and used to predict effects from remediating lake pollution and other environmental disturbances. However, these models are poorly suited for meromictic lakes which consist of yet another water layer. In order to determine a cross-systems based algorithm for the depth of the boundary between the two lowest layers (D crit2; in m), data from 24 three-layer lakes were analysed, and this depth could be predicted from the maximum depth and the lake surface area. The resulting model was tested with good results against independent data from 6 lakes which were not used for model development. Furthermore, D crit2 was predicted at a considerably lower depth than the theoretical wave base (a previously defined functional separator between the two top layers) in 110 out of 113 meromictic lakes. This indicates that the equation for D crit2 estimated in this study may be used for developing general mass-balance models for a large number of lakes which contain three stable water layers.

Many general mass-balance models that simulate processes in one or two water layers have been successfully constructed, tested and used to predict effects from remediating lake pollution and other environmental disturbances. However, these models are poorly suited for meromictic lakes which consist of yet another water layer. In order to determine a cross-systems based algorithm for the depth of the boundary between the two lowest layers (D crit2; in m), data from 24 three-layer lakes were analysed, and this depth could be predicted from the maximum depth and the lake surface area. The resulting model was tested with good results against independent data from 6 lakes which were not used for model development. Furthermore, D crit2 was predicted at a considerably lower depth than the theoretical wave base (a previously defined functional separator between the two top layers) in 110 out of 113 meromictic lakes. This indicates that the equation for D crit2 estimated in this study may be used for developing general mass-balance models for a large number of lakes which contain three stable water layers.

Many general mass-balance models that simulate processes in one or two water layers have been successfully constructed, tested and used to predict effects from remediating lake pollution and other environmental disturbances. However, these models are poorly suited for meromictic lakes which consist of yet another water layer. In order to determine a cross-systems based algorithm for the depth of the boundary between the two lowest layers (D crit2; in m), data from 24 three-layer lakes were analysed, and this depth could be predicted from the maximum depth and the lake surface area. The resulting model was tested with good results against independent data from 6 lakes which were not used for model development. Furthermore, D crit2 was predicted at a considerably lower depth than the theoretical wave base (a previously defined functional separator between the two top layers) in 110 out of 113 meromictic lakes. This indicates that the equation for D crit2 estimated in this study may be used for developing general mass-balance models for a large number of lakes which contain three stable water layers.

From six deep caldera lakes in Japan, namely lakes Ikeda, Towada, Tazawa, Toya, Kuttara and Shikotsu (in Japanese referred to as Ikedako, Towadako, Tazawako, Toyako, Kuttarako and Shikotsuko), fine resolution profiles of temperature, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen and pH have been measured. Measurements were conducted just after deep circulation from the end of March to the end of May 2005. Lake Ikeda and Lake Towada did not undergo a complete turnover. Both showed meromictic features with a clear interface separating the recirculated mixolimnion from the deeper monimolimnion. Lake Tazawa and Lake Toya showed a complete turnover in winter 2004/05, while in Lake Kuttara and Lake Shikotsu, a deep water body remained throughout winter due to pressure effects on the temperature of maximum density. Although these deep waters were never fully recycled into the mixolimnion, they presented themselves as well supplied with oxygen and well circulated within themselves. Where overturn had not been complete small gradients in the oxygen profile, pH profiles and electrical conductivity profiles could be detected. However only in Lake Towada were concentrations of dissolved substances and gradients high enough to have decisive impact on the circulation pattern.

Many general mass-balance models that simulate processes in one or two water layers have been successfully constructed, tested and used to predict effects from remediating lake pollution and other environmental disturbances. However, these models are poorly suited for meromictic lakes which consist of yet another water layer. In order to determine a cross-systems based algorithm for the depth of the boundary between the two lowest layers (D crit2; in m), data from 24 three-layer lakes were analysed, and this depth could be predicted from the maximum depth and the lake surface area. The resulting model was tested with good results against independent data from 6 lakes which were not used for model development. Furthermore, D crit2 was predicted at a considerably lower depth than the theoretical wave base (a previously defined functional separator between the two top layers) in 110 out of 113 meromictic lakes. This indicates that the equation for D crit2 estimated in this study may be used for developing general mass-balance models for a large number of lakes which contain three stable water layers.

Many general mass-balance models that simulate processes in one or two water layers have been successfully constructed, tested and used to predict effects from remediating lake pollution and other environmental disturbances. However, these models are poorly suited for meromictic lakes which consist of yet another water layer. In order to determine a cross-systems based algorithm for the depth of the boundary between the two lowest layers (D crit2; in m), data from 24 three-layer lakes were analysed, and this depth could be predicted from the maximum depth and the lake surface area. The resulting model was tested with good results against independent data from 6 lakes which were not used for model development. Furthermore, D crit2 was predicted at a considerably lower depth than the theoretical wave base (a previously defined functional separator between the two top layers) in 110 out of 113 meromictic lakes. This indicates that the equation for D crit2 estimated in this study may be used for developing general mass-balance models for a large number of lakes which contain three stable water layers.

Groundwater-lake interaction in conjunction with surface mixing and vertical exchange were quantitatively examined for the monimolimnion in a small stratified mining lake. Although the lake is shallow (4.7 m), it shows a strong meromixis. The permanent chemocline, which is connected with stable density stratification, separates the mixolimnion from the anoxic monimolimnion at a variable depth of only 0.6-1.9 m. We conducted a tracer experiment, injecting 3 µmol of anthropogenic gas SF6 into the monimolimnion. With monthly measured vertical concentration profiles extended over 2 years we detected and quantified the groundwater coupling. An exchange time close to once per year was estimated for the monimolimnion by balancing the tracer. From CTD casts and thermistor chain data we extracted additional information about mixing. For the water and tracer balances, we included the erosion of the monimolimnion surface by strong daily convective mixing in the mixolimnion during the warm period. SF6 background measurements before spiking indicate that diffusive transport through the chemocline density step must be very low, i.e., close to the molecular level. The observed seasonal variability of the chemocline depth can be considered as the result of a virtually steady inflow of groundwater, which supports the growth of the monimolimnion, and strong seasonal mixing in the mixolimnion, which acts against the stratification and erodes the monimolimnion. Over longer time scales, the chemocline is to be found at the level where erosive processes balance the recharging of the monimolimnion from groundwater.

From six deep caldera lakes in Japan, namely lakes Ikeda, Towada, Tazawa, Toya, Kuttara and Shikotsu (in Japanese referred to as Ikedako, Towadako, Tazawako, Toyako, Kuttarako and Shikotsuko), fine resolution profiles of temperature, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen and pH have been measured. Measurements were conducted just after deep circulation from the end of March to the end of May 2005. Lake Ikeda and Lake Towada did not undergo a complete turnover. Both showed meromictic features with a clear interface separating the recirculated mixolimnion from the deeper monimolimnion. Lake Tazawa and Lake Toya showed a complete turnover in winter 2004/05, while in Lake Kuttara and Lake Shikotsu, a deep water body remained throughout winter due to pressure effects on the temperature of maximum density. Although these deep waters were never fully recycled into the mixolimnion, they presented themselves as well supplied with oxygen and well circulated within themselves. Where overturn had not been complete small gradients in the oxygen profile, pH profiles and electrical conductivity profiles could be detected. However only in Lake Towada were concentrations of dissolved substances and gradients high enough to have decisive impact on the circulation pattern.

Many general mass-balance models that simulate processes in one or two water layers have been successfully constructed, tested and used to predict effects from remediating lake pollution and other environmental disturbances. However, these models are poorly suited for meromictic lakes which consist of yet another water layer. In order to determine a cross-systems based algorithm for the depth of the boundary between the two lowest layers (D crit2; in m), data from 24 three-layer lakes were analysed, and this depth could be predicted from the maximum depth and the lake surface area. The resulting model was tested with good results against independent data from 6 lakes which were not used for model development. Furthermore, D crit2 was predicted at a considerably lower depth than the theoretical wave base (a previously defined functional separator between the two top layers) in 110 out of 113 meromictic lakes. This indicates that the equation for D crit2 estimated in this study may be used for developing general mass-balance models for a large number of lakes which contain three stable water layers.

In very deep freshwater lakes, deep recirculation presents itself with remarkable differences to shallower lakes. We consider the stratification where density gradients are exclusively due to temperature differences. The annual circulation patterns are discussed for various climatic conditions. Very deep lakes do not necessarily produce full overturns during Tmd transition in autumn and spring. Peculiarities of the stratification are derived for cases, in which surface temperatures cross 4℃ during the annual cycle: Firstly, the asymmetry between autumn and spring circulation, secondly, the proximity of temperature to the Tmd profile, and thirdly, the isothermal deep water. We compare conceptual model results of horizontally homogeneous lakes with measurements in very deep caldera lakes in Japan (Lakes Ikeda, Tazawa, Toya, Kuttara and Shikotsu). Between oligomictic lakes and thermobarically stratified lakes, we have found lakes circulating reliably despite their enormous depth. We discuss susceptibility to climate variability supported by comparisons with single point measurements from the 1920s and 1930s.

Many lakes show vertical stratification of their water masses, at least for some extended time periods. Density differences in water bodies facilitate an evolution of chemical differences with many consequences for living organisms in lakes. Temperature and dissolved substances contribute to density differences in water. The atmosphere imposes a temperature signal on the lake surface. As a result, thermal stratification can be established during the warm season if a lake is sufficiently deep. On the contrary, during the cold period, surface cooling forces vertical circulation of water masses and removal of gradients of water properties. However, gradients of dissolved substances may be sustained for periods much longer than one annual cycle. Such lakes do not experience full overturns. Gradients may be a consequence of external inflows or groundwater seepage. In addition, photosynthesis at the lake surface and subsequent decomposition of organic material in the deeper layers of a lake can sustain a gradient of dissolved substances. Three more geochemical cycles, namely, calcite precipitation, iron cycle, and manganese cycle, are known for sustaining meromixis. A limited number of lakes do not experience a complete overturn because of pressure dependence of temperature of maximum density. Such lakes must be sufficiently deep and lie in the appropriate climate zone. Although these lakes are permanently stratified, deep waters are well ventilated, and chemical differences are small. Turbulent mixing and convective deep water renewal must be very effective. As a consequence, these lakes usually are not termed meromictic. Permanent stratification may also be created by episodic partial recharging of the deep water layer. This mechanism resembles the cycling of the ocean: horizontal gradients result from gradients at the surface, such as differential cooling or enhanced evaporation in adjacent shallow side bays. Dense water parcels can be formed which intrude the deep wat

In very deep freshwater lakes, deep recirculation presents itself with remarkable differences to shallower lakes. We consider the stratification where density gradients are exclusively due to temperature differences. The annual circulation patterns are discussed for various climatic conditions. Very deep lakes do not necessarily produce full overturns during Tmd transition in autumn and spring. Peculiarities of the stratification are derived for cases, in which surface temperatures cross 4°C during the annual cycle: Firstly, the asymmetry between autumn and spring circulation, secondly, the proximity of temperature to the Tmd profile, and thirdly, the isothermal deep water. We compare conceptual model results of horizontally homogeneous lakes with measurements in very deep caldera lakes in Japan (Lakes Ikeda, Tazawa, Toya, Kuttara and Shikotsu). Between oligomictic lakes and thermobarically stratified lakes, we have found lakes circulating reliably despite their enormous depth. We discuss susceptibility to climate variability supported by comparisons with single point measurements from the 1920s and 1930s.

In very deep freshwater lakes, deep recirculation presents itself with remarkable differences to shallower lakes. We consider the stratification where density gradients are exclusively due to temperature differences. The annual circulation patterns are discussed for various climatic conditions. Very deep lakes do not necessarily produce full overturns during Tmd transition in autumn and spring. Peculiarities of the stratification are derived for cases, in which surface temperatures cross 4℃ during the annual cycle: Firstly, the asymmetry between autumn and spring circulation, secondly, the proximity of temperature to the Tmd profile, and thirdly, the isothermal deep water. We compare conceptual model results of horizontally homogeneous lakes with measurements in very deep caldera lakes in Japan (Lakes Ikeda, Tazawa, Toya, Kuttara and Shikotsu). Between oligomictic lakes and thermobarically stratified lakes, we have found lakes circulating reliably despite their enormous depth. We discuss susceptibility to climate variability supported by comparisons with single point measurements from the 1920s and 1930s.

Groundwater discharge into an open pit lignite mining lake was investigated using radon-222 as a naturally occurring environmental tracer. The chosen study site was a meromictic lake, i.e., a water body that is divided horizontally into two separate layers - the upper mixolimnion (with seasonal mixing) and the lower monimolimnion (without seasonal mixing). For the estimation of groundwater discharge rates into the lake, a simple box model including all radon sinks and sources related to each layer was applied. Two field investigations were performed. During the October campaign, the total groundwater discharge into the lake was found to be 18.9 and 0.7 m3 d-1 for the mixolimnion and monimolimnion, respectively. During the December campaign, the groundwater discharge into the mixolimnion was 15.0 m3 d-1, whereas no discharge at all was observed into the monimolimnion. Based on the given water volumes, the residence time of lake water was 5.3 years for the monimolimnion and varies between 0.9 and 1.1 years for the mixolimnion. The investigation confirmed radon to be a useful environmental tracer for groundwater and surface water interactions in meromictic lake environments.

Dieser Beitrag beschreibt das Schichtungsverhalten von Seen, das Zustandekommen von Schichtung und verweist auf Auswirkungen auf die Wasserqualität und Ökologie im See. Es wird versucht, die Schichtungsvorgänge an Hand von Feldmessungen zu illustrieren. Dabei werden auch messtechnische Schwierigkeiten erwähnt. Konzepte wie Salinität oder potenzielle Dichte werden vorgestellt und die Grenzen ihrer Gültigkeit im limnischen Bereich werden erläutert. Das vorliegende Kapitel richtet sich an ökologisch Interessierte, die die Limnophysik als wichtige Eingangsgröße für ihre Arbeiten kennen müssen.

The research concerned the biggest, the deepest and the youngest (25 years old) acidotrophic reservoir located 4 km south-east from Lqknica. It was created as a result of brown-coal mining and opencast method. The present pyrite was the cause of significant acidifying and salinity of waters. 17 years of physico-chemical examinations of waters showed a progressive difference between mixo- and monimolimnion that is increase or decrease of such indicators as pH, redox potential, total iron, sulphate and others. First symptoms of ageing o f the reservoir were visible. Biological examinations showed pancity of plant and animal species living in this reservoir and a very slow development ofbiocoenosis. The research concerned the biggest, the deepest and the youngest (25 years old) acidotrophic reservoir located 4 km south-east from Lqknica. It was created as a result of brown-coal mining and opencast method. The present pyrite was the cause for significant acidifying and salinity of waters. 17 years of physico-chemical examinations of waters showed a progressive difference between mixo- and monimolimnion that is increase or decrease o f such indicators as pH, redox potential, total iron, sulphate and others. First symptoms of ageing o f the reservoir were visible. Biological examinations showed pancity of plant and animal species living in this reservoir and a very slow development of biocoenosis.

A sediment core from a Mediterranean karstic lake was studied through its pollen, diatom, chydorid, ostracod, charcoal and authigenic mineral composition. Information about environmental history recorded in the sediment sequence since the Middle Ages is presented. The main fluctuations of water volume and trophic status of the lake occurred during periods of great change in land management and during climatic cold phases. The synergetic effect of these two factors led to a high water level phase and triggered a rising of the trophic level which produced meromixis. The onset of meromictic conditions at about 1700 AD coincides with the Maunder minimum in the Little Ice Age as well as with a period of increasing human population, woodland clearance and agricultural expansion to the detriment of the nomadic livestock-breeding or transhumance ("Mesta").

[EN] Las Madres Lake is a shallow, oligo-mesotrophic, gravel-pit lake close to Madrid (Spain). In this paper we report the influence of the summer stratiphication-autumm overturn transition on the rotifers community. The existence of oxycline and anoxic hypolimnion explain the presence of Anuraeopsis fissa and Fi/inia holmanni: these species can colonize the environments where the oxygen concentration is very low. Polyarthra spp. and Hexarthra spp. are the main species., [ES]Desde finales de verano hasta mediados de otoño de 1991 se tomaron muestras, diariamente, en una laguna de gravera próxima a Madrid. Se determinaron diversos parámetros físico-químicos a partir de muestras tornadas a diferentes profundidades en la zona pelágica. La desaparición de la temoclina tuvo lugar lentamente manteniéndose constantemente una fuerte oxiclina que discriminará claramente la distribución vertical de las diferentes especies de rotíferos planctónicos, de las que solo seis de ellas: Polyarthra dolichoptera, P. remata, Hexarthra oxyuris, H. mira, Anuraeopsis fissa y Filinia hofmanni, representan el 98% de la densidad total de población. Este trabajo aporta información detallada de los cambios que se producen en la estructura de la comunidad de rotíferos cuando desaparece la estratificación térmica del verano y aumenta la profundidad de la zona de agua mezclada del epilimnion. El período de tiempo de este estudio se prolongó durante tres meses.

Saline Lake Shira (Southern Siberia, Russia) was meromictic through the observation period 2002-2015. During the under-ice periods of 2015 and 2016, complete mixing of the water column was recorded for the first time, and hydrogen sulphide temporarily disappeared from the water column of the lake; i.e. in those years the lake turned to holomixis. In the summer of 2015, a sharp increase in chlorophyll a, organic carbon, zooplankton, and phytoflagellates was observed in the lake, which was probably due to the release of nutrients from the monimolimnion. Purple sulfur bacteria completely disappeared from the lake after the first mixing in 2015, and did not reappear despite the restoration of meromixis in 2017. Thus, it was demonstrated that purple sulfur bacteria are sensitive to the weakening of the stratification of Lake Shira. Based on the data of the seasonal monitoring of temperature and salinity profiles over the period 2002-2017, it was presumed that the main cause of deep mixing in 2015 was the weakening of the salinity gradient due to strong wind impact and early ice retreat in the spring of 2014. In addition, it was shown that in previous years a significant contribution to the maintenance of meromixis was made by an additional influx of fresh water, which caused a rise in the lake level in the period 2002-2007. Thus, we identified a relationship between the stratification regime of the lake and the change in its level, which provides valuable information both for the forecast of water quality and for reconstruction of the Holocene climate humidity in this region of Southern Siberia from the sediment cores of Lake Shira.