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Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) are cell-secreted nanovesicles that have unique potential for encapsulating and targeting “difficult-to-drug” therapeutic cargos. Milk provides an enriched source of EVs, and of particular interest to the drug delivery field, small EVs. Small EVs are distinguished from large EVs by membrane components, biogenesis mechanism and downstream functionality - in particular, small EVs are primarily composed of exosomes, which show high stability in vivo and naturally function in the targeted delivery of biological materials to cells. Moreover, bovine milk is abundantly produced by the dairy industry, widely consumed, and generally well tolerated by humans. Importantly, there is evidence that milk exosomes and small EVs are efficiently taken up into the circulation from the gut, providing the opportunity for their use in administration of therapeutics such as microRNAs or peptides not typically available via an oral route. Unfortunately, present methods for isolation do not efficiently separate EVs from milk proteins, resulting in contamination that is not desirable in a clinical-grade therapeutic. Herein, we present novel EV purification methods focused on optimized timing and levels of temperature and divalent cation chelation. Incorporation of these solubilization steps into centrifugation- and tangential flow filtration-based methods provide large amounts of purified small EVs at ultra-dense concentrations, which are substantially free from contaminating milk proteins. Remarkably, these ultra-dense isolates equal 10 to 15% of the starting volume of milk indicating a prodigious rate of small EV production by mammary glands. Our approach enables gentle, scalable production of ultrastructurally and functionally intact small EVs from milk, providing a path to their industrial scale purification for oral delivery of therapeutic biologics and small drugs.

Connexin (Cx43)-formed channels have been linked to cardiac arrhythmias and diseases of the heart associated with myocardial tissue loss and fibrosis. These pathologies include ischemic heart disease, ischemia-reperfusion injury, heart failure, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. A number of Cx43 mimetic peptides have been reported as therapeutic candidates for targeting disease processes linked to Cx43, including some that have advanced to clinical testing in humans. These peptides include Cx43 sequences based on the extracellular loop domains (e.g., Gap26, Gap 27, and Peptide5), cytoplasmic-loop domain (Gap19 and L2), and cytoplasmic carboxyl-terminal domain (e.g., JM2, Cx43tat, CycliCX, and the alphaCT family of peptides) of this transmembrane protein. Additionally, RYYN peptides binding to the Cx43 carboxyl-terminus have been described. In this review, we survey preclinical and clinical data available on short mimetic peptides based on, or directly targeting, Cx43, with focus on their potential for treating heart disease. We also discuss problems that have caused reluctance within the pharmaceutical industry to translate peptidic therapeutics to the clinic, even when supporting preclinical data is strong. These issues include those associated with the administration, stability in vivo, and tissue penetration of peptide-based therapeutics. Finally, we discuss novel drug delivery technologies including nanoparticles, exosomes, and other nanovesicular carriers that could transform the clinical and commercial viability of Cx43-targeting peptides in treatment of heart disease, stroke, cancer, and other indications requiring oral or parenteral administration. Some of these newly emerging approaches to drug delivery may provide a path to overcoming pitfalls associated with the drugging of peptide therapeutics.

Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) are cell-secreted nanovesicles that have unique potential for encapsulating and targeting “difficult-to-drug” therapeutic cargos. Milk provides an enriched source of EVs, and of particular interest to the drug delivery field, small EVs. Small EVs are distinguished from large EVs by membrane components, biogenesis mechanism and downstream functionality - in particular, small EVs are primarily composed of exosomes, which show high stability in vivo and naturally function in the targeted delivery of biological materials to cells. Moreover, bovine milk is abundantly produced by the dairy industry, widely consumed, and generally well tolerated by humans. Importantly, there is evidence that milk exosomes and small EVs are efficiently taken up into the circulation from the gut, providing the opportunity for their use in administration of therapeutics such as microRNAs or peptides not typically available via an oral route. Unfortunately, present methods for isolation do not efficiently separate EVs from milk proteins, resulting in contamination that is not desirable in a clinical-grade therapeutic. Herein, we present novel EV purification methods focused on optimized timing and levels of temperature and divalent cation chelation. Incorporation of these solubilization steps into centrifugation- and tangential flow filtration-based methods provide large amounts of purified small EVs at ultra-dense concentrations, which are substantially free from contaminating milk proteins. Remarkably, these ultra-dense isolates equal 10 to 15% of the starting volume of milk indicating a prodigious rate of small EV production by mammary glands. Our approach enables gentle, scalable production of ultrastructurally and functionally intact small EVs from milk, providing a path to their industrial scale purification for oral delivery of therapeutic biologics and small drugs.

Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) are cell-secreted nanovesicles that have unique potential for encapsulating and targeting “difficult-to-drug” therapeutic cargos. Milk provides an enriched source of EVs, and of particular interest to the drug delivery field, small EVs. Small EVs are distinguished from large EVs by membrane components, biogenesis mechanism and downstream functionality - in particular, small EVs are primarily composed of exosomes, which show high stability in vivo and naturally function in the targeted delivery of biological materials to cells. Moreover, bovine milk is abundantly produced by the dairy industry, widely consumed, and generally well tolerated by humans. Importantly, there is evidence that milk exosomes and small EVs are efficiently taken up into the circulation from the gut, providing the opportunity for their use in administration of therapeutics such as microRNAs or peptides not typically available via an oral route. Unfortunately, present methods for isolation do not efficiently separate EVs from milk proteins, resulting in contamination that is not desirable in a clinical-grade therapeutic. Herein, we present novel EV purification methods focused on optimized timing and levels of temperature and divalent cation chelation. Incorporation of these solubilization steps into centrifugation- and tangential flow filtration-based methods provide large amounts of purified small EVs at ultra-dense concentrations, which are substantially free from contaminating milk proteins. Remarkably, these ultra-dense isolates equal 10 to 15% of the starting volume of milk indicating a prodigious rate of small EV production by mammary glands. Our approach enables gentle, scalable production of ultrastructurally and functionally intact small EVs from milk, providing a path to their industrial scale purification for oral delivery of therapeutic biologics and small drugs.

Connexin (Cx43)-formed channels have been linked to cardiac arrhythmias and diseases of the heart associated with myocardial tissue loss and fibrosis. These pathologies include ischemic heart disease, ischemia-reperfusion injury, heart failure, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. A number of Cx43 mimetic peptides have been reported as therapeutic candidates for targeting disease processes linked to Cx43, including some that have advanced to clinical testing in humans. These peptides include Cx43 sequences based on the extracellular loop domains (e.g., Gap26, Gap 27, and Peptide5), cytoplasmic-loop domain (Gap19 and L2), and cytoplasmic carboxyl-terminal domain (e.g., JM2, Cx43tat, CycliCX, and the alphaCT family of peptides) of this transmembrane protein. Additionally, RYYN peptides binding to the Cx43 carboxyl-terminus have been described. In this review, we survey preclinical and clinical data available on short mimetic peptides based on, or directly targeting, Cx43, with focus on their potential for treating heart disease. We also discuss problems that have caused reluctance within the pharmaceutical industry to translate peptidic therapeutics to the clinic, even when supporting preclinical data is strong. These issues include those associated with the administration, stability in vivo, and tissue penetration of peptide-based therapeutics. Finally, we discuss novel drug delivery technologies including nanoparticles, exosomes, and other nanovesicular carriers that could transform the clinical and commercial viability of Cx43-targeting peptides in treatment of heart disease, stroke, cancer, and other indications requiring oral or parenteral administration. Some of these newly emerging approaches to drug delivery may provide a path to overcoming pitfalls associated with the drugging of peptide therapeutics.