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Brown seaweeds are keystone species of coastal ecosystems, often forming extensive underwater forests, that are under considerable threat from climate change. Despite their ecological and evolutionary importance, this phylogenetic group, which is very distantly related to animals and land plants, is still poorly characterised at the genome level. Here we analyse 60 new genomes that include species from all the major brown algal orders. Comparative analysis of these genomes indicated the occurrence of several major events coinciding approximately with the emergence of the brown algal lineage. These included marked gain of new orthologous gene families, enhanced protein domain rearrangement, horizontal gene transfer events and the acquisition of novel signalling molecules and metabolic pathways. The latter include enzymes implicated in processes emblematic of the brown algae such as biosynthesis of the alginate-based extracellular matrix, and halogen and phlorotannin biosynthesis. These early genomic innovations enabled the adaptation of brown algae to their intertidal habitats. The subsequent diversification of the brown algal orders tended to involve loss of gene families, and genomic features were identified that correlated with the emergence of differences in life cycle strategy, flagellar structure and halogen metabolism. We show that integration of large viral genomes has had a significant impact on brown algal genome content and propose that this process has persisted throughout the evolutionary history of the lineage. Finally, analysis of microevolutionary patterns within the genusEctocarpusindicated that deep gene flow between species may be an important factor in genome evolution on more recent timescales.

In this paper we introduce k-laminar graphs a new class of graphs which extends the idea of Asteroidal triple free graphs. Indeed a graph is k-laminar if it admits a diametral path that is k-dominating. This bio-inspired class of graphs was motivated by a biological application dealing with sequence similarity networks of reads (called hereafter read networks for short). We briefly develop the context of the biological application in which this graph class appeared and then we consider the relationships of this new graph class among known graph classes and then we study its recognition problem. For the recognition of k-laminar graphs, we develop polynomial algorithms when k is fixed. For k=1, our algorithm improves a Deogun and Krastch's algorithm (1999). We finish by an NP-completeness result when k is unbounded.

Defining homologous genes is important in many evolutionary studies but raises obvious issues. Some of these issues are conceptual, and stem from our assumptions of how a gene evolves, others are practical, and depend on the algorithmic decisions implemented in existing software. Therefore, in order to make progress in the study of homology, both ontological and epistemological questions must be considered. In particular, defining homologous genes cannot solely be addressed under the classic assumptions of strong tree-thinking, according to which genes evolve in a strictly tree-like fashion of vertical descent and divergence and the problems of homology detection are primarily methodological. Gene homology could also be considered under a different perspective where genes evolve as ‘public goods’, subjected to various introgressive processes. In this latter case, defining homologous genes becomes a matter of designing models suited to the actual complexity of the data and how such complexity arises, rather than trying to fit genetic data to some a priori tree-like evolutionary model, a practice that inevitably results in the loss of much information. Here we show how important aspects of the problems raised by homology detection methods can be overcome when even more fundamental roots of these problems are addressed by analysing ‘public goods thinking’ evolutionary processes through which genes have frequently originated. This kind of thinking acknowledges distinct types of homologs, characterised by distinct patterns, in phylogenetic and non phylogenetic unrooted or multi-rooted networks. In addition, we define “family resemblances” to include genes that are related through intermediate relatives, thereby placing notions of homology in the broader context of evolutionary relationships. We conclude by presenting some pay-offs of adopting such a pluralistic account of homology and family relationship, that expands the scope of evolutionary analyses beyond the traditi

Defining homologous genes is important in many evolutionary studies but raises obvious issues. Some of these issues are conceptual, and stem from our assumptions of how a gene evolves, others are practical, and depend on the algorithmic decisions implemented in existing software. Therefore, in order to make progress in the study of homology, both ontological and epistemological questions must be considered. In particular, defining homologous genes cannot solely be addressed under the classic assumptions of strong tree-thinking, according to which genes evolve in a strictly tree-like fashion of vertical descent and divergence and the problems of homology detection are primarily methodological. Gene homology could also be considered under a different perspective where genes evolve as ‘public goods’, subjected to various introgressive processes. In this latter case, defining homologous genes becomes a matter of designing models suited to the actual complexity of the data and how such complexity arises, rather than trying to fit genetic data to some a priori tree-like evolutionary model, a practice that inevitably results in the loss of much information. Here we show how important aspects of the problems raised by homology detection methods can be overcome when even more fundamental roots of these problems are addressed by analysing ‘public goods thinking’ evolutionary processes through which genes have frequently originated. This kind of thinking acknowledges distinct types of homologs, characterised by distinct patterns, in phylogenetic and non phylogenetic unrooted or multi-rooted networks. In addition, we define “family resemblances” to include genes that are related through intermediate relatives, thereby placing notions of homology in the broader context of evolutionary relationships. We conclude by presenting some pay-offs of adopting such a pluralistic account of homology and family relationship, that expands the scope of evolutionary analyses beyond the traditi

All evolutionary biologists are familiar with evolutionary units that evolve by vertical descent in a tree-like fashion in single lineages. However, many other kinds of processes contribute to evolutionary diversity. In vertical descent, the genetic material of a particular evolutionary unit is propagated by replication inside its own lineage. In what we call introgressive descent, the genetic material of a particular evolutionary unit propagates into different host structures and is replicated within these host structures. Thus, introgressive descent generates a variety of evolutionary units and leaves recognizable patterns in resemblance networks. We characterize six kinds of evolutionary units, of which five involve mosaic lineages generated by introgressive descent. To facilitate detection of these units in resemblance networks, we introduce terminology based on two notions, P3s (subgraphs of three nodes: A, B, and C) and mosaic P3s, and suggest an apparatus for systematic detection of introgressive descent. Mosaic P3s correspond to a distinct type of evolutionary bond that is orthogonal to the bonds of kinship and genealogy usually examined by evolutionary biologists. We argue that recognition of these evolutionary bonds stimulates radical rethinking of key questions in evolutionary biology (e.g., the relations among evolutionary players in very early phases of evolutionary history, the origin and emergence of novelties, and the production of new lineages). This line of research will expand the study of biological complexity beyond the usual genealogical bonds, revealing additional sources of biodiversity. It provides an important step to a more realistic pluralist treatment of evolutionary complexity.

All evolutionary biologists are familiar with evolutionary units that evolve by vertical descent in a tree-like fashion in single lineages. However, many other kinds of processes contribute to evolutionary diversity. In vertical descent, the genetic material of a particular evolutionary unit is propagated by replication inside its own lineage. In what we call introgressive descent, the genetic material of a particular evolutionary unit propagates into different host structures and is replicated within these host structures. Thus, introgressive descent generates a variety of evolutionary units and leaves recognizable patterns in resemblance networks. We characterize six kinds of evolutionary units, of which five involve mosaic lineages generated by introgressive descent. To facilitate detection of these units in resemblance networks, we introduce terminology based on two notions, P3s (subgraphs of three nodes: A, B, and C) and mosaic P3s, and suggest an apparatus for systematic detection of introgressive descent. Mosaic P3s correspond to a distinct type of evolutionary bond that is orthogonal to the bonds of kinship and genealogy usually examined by evolutionary biologists. We argue that recognition of these evolutionary bonds stimulates radical rethinking of key questions in evolutionary biology (e.g., the relations among evolutionary players in very early phases of evolutionary history, the origin and emergence of novelties, and the production of new lineages). This line of research will expand the study of biological complexity beyond the usual genealogical bonds, revealing additional sources of biodiversity. It provides an important step to a more realistic pluralist treatment of evolutionary complexity.

Vibrio cholerae represents both an environmental pathogen and a widely distributed microbial species comprised of closely related strains occurring in the tropical to temperate coastal ocean across the globe (Colwell RR, Science 274:2025–2031, 1996; Griffith DC, Kelly-Hope LA, Miller MA, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 75:973–977, 2006; Reidl J, Klose KE, FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 26:125–139, 2002). However, although this implies dispersal and growth across diverse environmental conditions, how locally successful populations assemble from a possibly global gene pool, relatively unhindered by geographic boundaries, remains poorly understood. Here, we show that environmental Vibrio cholerae possesses two, largely distinct gene pools: one is vertically inherited and globally well mixed, and the other is local and rapidly transferred across species boundaries to generate an endemic population structure. While phylogeographic analysis of isolates collected from Bangladesh and the U.S. east coast suggested strong panmixis for protein-coding genes, there was geographic structure in integrons, which are the only genomic islands present in all strains of V. cholerae (Chun J, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 106:15442–15447, 2009) and are capable of acquiring and expressing mobile gene cassettes. Geographic differentiation in integrons arises from high gene turnover, with acquisition from a locally cooccurring sister species being up to twice as likely as exchange with conspecific but geographically distant V. cholerae populations., National Science Foundation (U.S.), Woods Hole Center for Oceans & Human Health, Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, National Institutes of Health (U.S.), United States. Dept. of Energy, Merck Research Laboratories, Netherlands. Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschappen

Background: Improving knowledge of biodiversity will benefit conservation biology, enhance bioremediation studies, and could lead to new medical treatments. However there is no standard approach to estimate and to compare the diversity of different environments, or to study its past, and possibly, future evolution. Presentation of the hypothesis: We argue that there are two conditions for significant progress in the identification and quantification of biodiversity. First, integrative metagenomic studies - aiming at the simultaneous examination (or even better at the integration) of observations about the elements, functions and evolutionary processes captured by the massive sequencing of multiple markers - should be preferred over DNA barcoding projects and over metagenomic projects based on a single marker. Second, such metagenomic data should be studied with novel inclusive network-based approaches, designed to draw inferences both on the many units and on the many processes present in the environments. Testing the hypothesis: We reached these conclusions through a comparison of the theoretical foundations of two molecular approaches seeking to assess biodiversity: metagenomics (mostly used on prokaryotes and protists) and DNA barcoding (mostly used on multicellular eukaryotes), and by pragmatic considerations of the issues caused by the 'species problem' in biodiversity studies. Implications of the hypothesis: Evolutionary gene networks reduce the risk of producing biodiversity estimates with limited explanatory power, biased either by unequal rates of LGT, or difficult to interpret due to (practical) problems caused by type I and type II grey zones. Moreover, these networks would easily accommodate additional (meta) transcriptomic and (meta) proteomic data.

Background: Improving knowledge of biodiversity will benefit conservation biology, enhance bioremediation studies, and could lead to new medical treatments. However there is no standard approach to estimate and to compare the diversity of different environments, or to study its past, and possibly, future evolution. Presentation of the hypothesis: We argue that there are two conditions for significant progress in the identification and quantification of biodiversity. First, integrative metagenomic studies - aiming at the simultaneous examination (or even better at the integration) of observations about the elements, functions and evolutionary processes captured by the massive sequencing of multiple markers - should be preferred over DNA barcoding projects and over metagenomic projects based on a single marker. Second, such metagenomic data should be studied with novel inclusive network-based approaches, designed to draw inferences both on the many units and on the many processes present in the environments. Testing the hypothesis: We reached these conclusions through a comparison of the theoretical foundations of two molecular approaches seeking to assess biodiversity: metagenomics (mostly used on prokaryotes and protists) and DNA barcoding (mostly used on multicellular eukaryotes), and by pragmatic considerations of the issues caused by the 'species problem' in biodiversity studies. Implications of the hypothesis: Evolutionary gene networks reduce the risk of producing biodiversity estimates with limited explanatory power, biased either by unequal rates of LGT, or difficult to interpret due to (practical) problems caused by type I and type II grey zones. Moreover, these networks would easily accommodate additional (meta) transcriptomic and (meta) proteomic data.

Background: Improving knowledge of biodiversity will benefit conservation biology, enhance bioremediation studies, and could lead to new medical treatments. However there is no standard approach to estimate and to compare the diversity of different environments, or to study its past, and possibly, future evolution. Presentation of the hypothesis: We argue that there are two conditions for significant progress in the identification and quantification of biodiversity. First, integrative metagenomic studies - aiming at the simultaneous examination (or even better at the integration) of observations about the elements, functions and evolutionary processes captured by the massive sequencing of multiple markers - should be preferred over DNA barcoding projects and over metagenomic projects based on a single marker. Second, such metagenomic data should be studied with novel inclusive network-based approaches, designed to draw inferences both on the many units and on the many processes present in the environments. Testing the hypothesis: We reached these conclusions through a comparison of the theoretical foundations of two molecular approaches seeking to assess biodiversity: metagenomics (mostly used on prokaryotes and protists) and DNA barcoding (mostly used on multicellular eukaryotes), and by pragmatic considerations of the issues caused by the 'species problem' in biodiversity studies. Implications of the hypothesis: Evolutionary gene networks reduce the risk of producing biodiversity estimates with limited explanatory power, biased either by unequal rates of LGT, or difficult to interpret due to (practical) problems caused by type I and type II grey zones. Moreover, these networks would easily accommodate additional (meta) transcriptomic and (meta) proteomic data.

Une série d'essais mécaniques en cisaillement sur des répliques en mortier d'une fracture rocheuse (Flamand, 2000) a permis de mettre en évidence l'influence de la morphologie sur le comportement mécanique en cisaillement. Partant de ces essais on se propose d'établir un modèle du comportement et de déterminer quels sont les paramètres ou facteurs morphologiques les plus influents sur le comportement. A cette fin une revue bibliographique dans le domaine du comportement mécanique des fractures rocheuses a été réalisée ; il en ressort que les modèles actuels ne permettent pas de modéliser en une seule fois, le comportement sur toute la gamme des déplacements horizontaux. Dans un premier temps, une simulation géostatistique de la surface des épontes rocheuses est effectuée pour calculer, quelle que soit la direction de déplacement relatif des épontes, les valeurs de facteurs morphologiques ; on en retient quatre RL, Z3, 62, Z4. Dans un deuxième temps, un plan d'expériences prenant en compte des facteurs mécaniques (contrainte normale et déplacement horizontal) et les facteurs morphologiques précédents est construit; les résultats qui en découlent sont analysés. Les résultats du plan permettent d'obtenir un modèle de simulation du comportement pour des contraintes normales comprises entre 0 % et 30 % de la résistance en compression du matériau utilisé pour les répliques, pour des déplacements tangentiels compris entre 0 mm et 5 mm, et pour toutes les directions de déplacements horizontaux. Le facteur morphologique Z3 se distingue des autres ; on montre que son influence sur le comportement est très faible. Les facteurs morphologiques (RL, Z4 et 82) influencent de façon significative le comportement mécanique en cisaillement, soit la dilatance, et la contrainte tangentielle. Tenant compte des résultats d'une étude des erreurs de prédiction, une nouvelle série d'essais est proposée respectant une répartition uniforme des niveaux du facteur morphologique 02.

Autotrophic carbon fixation is a crucial process for sustaining life on Earth. To date, six pathways, the Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle, the reductive tricarboxylic acid cycle, the 3-hydroxypropionate bi-cycle, the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway, the dicarboxylate/4-hydroxybutyrate cycle, and the 4-hydroxybutyrate cycle have been described. Nanoorganisms, such as members of the Candidate Phyla Radiation (CPR) bacterial superphylum and the Diapherotrites, Parvarchaeota, Aenigmarchaeota, Nanoarchaeota, Nanohalorchaeota (DPANN) archaeal superphylum, could deeply impact carbon cycling and carbon fixation in ways that are still to be determined. CPR and DPANN are ubiquitous in the environment but understudied; their gene contents are not exhaustively described, and their metabolisms are not yet fully understood. Here, the completeness of each of the above pathways were quantified and tested for the presence of all key enzymes in a diversity of nanoorganisms across the World Ocean. The novel marine ultra-small prokaryotes was demonstrated to collectively harbor the genes required for carbon fixation, in particular the ‘energetically efficient’ DH pathway, and HBC pathways. This contrasted with the known carbon metabolic pathways associated with CPR memebers in aquifers, where they are described as degraders (Castelle 2015 et al., 2015, Castelle et al., 2018, Anantharaman et al., 2016). Our findings offer the possibility that nanoorganisms have a broader contribution to carbon fixation and cycling than currently assumed. Furthermore, CPR and DPANN are possibly not the only nanosized prokaryotes; therefore, the discovery of new autotrophic marine nanoorganisms, by future single cell genomics is anticipated.

Autotrophic carbon fixation is a crucial process for sustaining life on Earth. To date, six pathways, the Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle, the reductive tricarboxylic acid cycle, the 3-hydroxypropionate bi-cycle, the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway, the dicarboxylate/4-hydroxybutyrate cycle, and the 4-hydroxybutyrate cycle have been described. Nanoorganisms, such as members of the Candidate Phyla Radiation (CPR) bacterial superphylum and the Diapherotrites, Parvarchaeota, Aenigmarchaeota, Nanoarchaeota, Nanohalorchaeota (DPANN) archaeal superphylum, could deeply impact carbon cycling and carbon fixation in ways that are still to be determined. CPR and DPANN are ubiquitous in the environment but understudied; their gene contents are not exhaustively described, and their metabolisms are not yet fully understood. Here, the completeness of each of the above pathways were quantified and tested for the presence of all key enzymes in a diversity of nanoorganisms across the World Ocean. The novel marine ultra-small prokaryotes was demonstrated to collectively harbor the genes required for carbon fixation, in particular the ‘energetically efficient’ DH pathway, and HBC pathways. This contrasted with the known carbon metabolic pathways associated with CPR memebers in aquifers, where they are described as degraders (Castelle 2015 et al., 2015, Castelle et al., 2018, Anantharaman et al., 2016). Our findings offer the possibility that nanoorganisms have a broader contribution to carbon fixation and cycling than currently assumed. Furthermore, CPR and DPANN are possibly not the only nanosized prokaryotes; therefore, the discovery of new autotrophic marine nanoorganisms, by future single cell genomics is anticipated.